Integrated water management is a wicked public policy problem with no clear path to resolution. This dissertation is an in-depth qualitative comparative analysis of two collaborative governance processes created to tackle complex water problems in New Zealand and Oregon, U.S.A. Both cases convened a wide range of state and non-state actors in efforts to find common ground, build consensus for change, and develop innovative water policy solutions. The goal of this comparative case study analysis is to gain a better understanding of collaborative network governance frameworks as applied to integrated water management and primary factors for success. The proposition posits that collaborative networks involving public, private, and non-profit actors are better equipped than government-driven efforts to develop desired outcomes. To test this proposition, the research questions probe the role of state and non-state policy actors, conditions for collaboration, strength of actor ties, development of trust and social capital, barriers to success, and the role of climate change as a policy driver in these two case studies. The comparative case study analysis yields fascinating insights that adds to the network governance literature. In the New Zealand case, a collaborative-led process called the Land and Water Forum (LAWF) showed that this ongoing network offers benefits to creating consensus on complex water issues. LAWF succeeded in moving policy conversations forward where previous government-led efforts had failed. Within the LAWF collaborative network, non-state actors formed strong ties; however, relationships with state actors exhibited weaker ties. With Oregon's integrated water policy, a collaborative network approach created a more conducive environment for meaningful dialogue among vested interests, and built some levels of interdependency and trust, thus generating a wider array of policy options than through previous legislative and bureaucratic efforts. However, long-standing political, legal, and institutional challenges continue to constrain effective integrated water management and the delivery of integrated outcomes in Oregon. The Oregon case did not exhibit strong leadership within the collaborative to broker challenging policy issues. Also, it faced implementation challenges as one state agency was given responsibility for stewarding integrated water management but lacked authority for implementation or coordination with other state agencies. Overcoming fragmented natural resource governance arrangements remains a daunting challenge. This research revealed three key findings: (1) in both cases, collaborative network governance worked well for framing and designing new integrated water policies, but encountered implementation challenges; (2) managing the complexities around the intersection of top-down, vertical command and control governance with horizontal collaborative approaches remains an ongoing challenge to New Public Governance; and (3) the two cases represent examples of the use of formal and informal processes for policy development. The benefits of collaborative governance for policy development are substantial, and the limitations appear to be obstacles to overcome and not fatal flaws. The main challenge lies in transitioning from policy and planning to implementing changes on the ground affecting the way we manage water today and in the future.

This dissertation examined the extent to which interests and values of diverse stakeholders were considered through participation-oriented decision-making. It covered the An' Yang Stream restoration case in South Korea, which has been judged a successful stream management endeavor led by public-private partnership governance. This research utilized a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative methods. It addressed the extent to which the collaborative and participatory decision-making processes incorporated diverse stakeholder values and visions. The relevant data on stream restoration was collected through nominal group technique (NGT), analytic hierarchy process (AHP), semi-structured interviews, observations at collaborative stakeholder meetings and workshops, and documentation review. My research concluded that integration of all interests was not achieved. These interests might have potentially affected the extent to which stakeholders' values are incorporated or not in participation-oriented collaborative stakeholders' partnerships by utilizing interest-based facilitation techniques, such as joint-fact-finding or principled negotiation. At the same time, my findings expatiate the catalyzing roles of the public media within stream restoration decision-making governance.

Turbidity is a useful parameter that can be utilized to help understand the water quality in a river and is an expression of the optical properties of a liquid that cause light rays to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines. A total of 41 storm events occurring during water years 2006-2012 were analyzed for this study. A hysteresis index (HI) was used to assess the difference in turbidity on the rising and falling limbs of a storm-hydrograph. The upstream Carter Bridge site exhibited a clockwise (C) hysteresis in 38 of 41 storm events and counter-clockwise (CC) hysteresis in three storm events. The downstream Oregon City site exhibited clockwise hysteresis in 29 of 41 storm events and counter-clockwise hysteresis in 12 storm events. Paired t-test comparisons of calculated HI measured during storm events showed that the upstream forested site Carter Bridge had a statistically significant higher HI than the downstream Oregon City site, suggesting that particles that contribute to increasing turbidity and suspended sediment at the upstream site are delivered to the river earlier in the storm event in comparison to the downstream Oregon City site. In contrast particulate matter and suspended sediment was more likely to be higher on the receding limb of the storm hydrograph at the downstream site in comparison to the upstream monitoring location. Multiple linear regression analysis determined the major hydrological and meteorological controls influencing turbidity over the period of a storm event. The log value of the change (Log ΔQ) in discharge explained 81% of the log value of change in turbidity (Log ΔTb) at Carter Bridge and 48% of the change in turbidity at Oregon City for all storms. Log ΔQ explained 85% and 50% variations of Log ΔTb at Carter Bridge and at Oregon City, respectively in the wet season. Log ΔQ explained 82% of Log ΔTb at Carter Bridge during the Dry Season and together with 3-day antecedent precipitation, Log ΔQ explained 84% of variation in Log ΔTb at Oregon City during the Dry Season. The findings of this study, which offers information about the dynamics that lead to increased turbidity events, could be helpful to researchers, regulatory agencies and water resource managers in maintaining high water quality in rivers.

This research investigated parameters that can affect the use of nanoporous silica gel as a media for accumulating a detectable amount of uranium. The unique fluorescence of the Uranyl (UO22+) ion was used to evaluate the transport kinetics and accumulation within silica gel in a static fluid and under pressure driven flow. The addition of fluid flow decreased the time constant from on the order of an hour to approximately 2s with a very low fluid velocity of 0.36cm/s. The 0.36cm/s fluid velocity was found to be the critical velocity above which there was no gain in time constant. A table top instrument was developed that can detect trace amounts of uranium in solution. The table top instrument was used to investigate how the time constant depends on the uranyl concentration, which led to the development of a new time-based method for quantifying the uranyl concentration. The time-based method of detection uses a preset threshold and, based on the time it takes to reach that threshold, the concentration in the water sample can be determined. The lifetime of uranyl in complex with silica increased to approximately 120us, allowing for gated detection and background discrimination. In addition to the fluorescent contaminants, competing cations were tested to determine how they affect the fluorescence and transport kinetics of the uranyl. The cations tested were Mn2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, and Li+. The result shows that within the natural concentrations, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ did quench the fluorescent of the uranyl ions by collision quenching. The time constant was also examined in the presence of each cation and showed that Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ decreased the adsorption time constant. Future studies in this area should be directed toward the development of a portable version of the instrument.

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) heterojunction composites with the semiconducting metal oxides, CeO2, ZnO and TiO2 are prepared in situ by co-calcination of the precursor materials or by a solvothermal method. The structural, morphological and the optical properties of the prepared materials are studied using various microscopy and spectroscopy techniques. The synthesized composite materials, CeO2/g-C3N4, ZnO/g-C3N4 and TiO2/g-C3N4 are more efficient in the photocatalytic degradation of the water pollutants indigo carmine (IC) and atrazine than the pure metal oxide, g-C3N4, or their physical mixtures. The CeO2/g-C3N4 and ZnO/g-C3N4 composites also exhibit improved degradation efficiencies of atrazine as compared to the individual metal oxide or g-C3N4 materials. The improved photocatalytic activity of the composites are attributed to the effective electron-hole charge separation within composite heterojunction, resulting from the well matched energy levels of the metal oxide and g-C3N4. This strategy could be helpful for the synthesis of other metal oxide and g-C3N4 composites for photocatalytic applications.

Sample preparation is an essential component of analytical methods in chemistry. It is not only necessary but also presents an opportunity to increase the effectiveness of the method significantly. There are various commercially available technologies for sample preparation, including numerous variations of LLE, SPE, and SPME. However, these technologies all present significant deficiencies, including the inability to extract directly from complex samples such as whole milk. Instrumental analysis has been improved greatly in the last two decades but still is not applicable to complex samples without sample preparation. This work presents the theory of FPSE, including the synthesis of sol-gel sorbents, coating of FPSE cellulose substrates and the mechanism of retention. Original research data presented herein introduce a comprehensive view on possible applications of FPSE in forensic chemistry and otherwise. Five distinct FPSE-based methods were rigorously developed for analysis of targeted pollutant residues. These methods were validated and compare to leading methods published in peer-reviewed literature quite favorably. Four of the methods were coupled to HPLC-UV and designed for trace or ultra-trace analysis of PAHs, BTEX, substituted phenols and nitroaromatic explosives, respectively. An additional FPSE-based method was developed and validated for direct analysis of BPA and five estrogenic EDCs in commercially purchased whole milk. This latter was coupled to both HPLC-UV and HPLC(QQQ)-MS/MS. The applicability of FPSE(PTHF) media was also tested for screening of aqueous samples and subsequent storage of analytes on the sorbent. My study included simultaneous extraction of a mixture of eight forensically significant compounds with various physicochemical properties and effective storage of each compound in frozen and ambient conditions for 32 weeks. These findings suggest that the storage ability of FPSE media can be extended as long as necessary, which is very significant in forensic laboratories where evidence often needs to be stored in a costly manner that may not be as effective in maintaining the chemical composition of the sample.

In response to drought and regional growth in the arid western United States, urban water demand management is increasingly important. Single family residences use approximately 60% of their water consumption to irrigate landscapes often in excess of plant water requirements. This study utilized a quasi-experimental design to investigate outdoor water consumption and assess the effectiveness of a landscape water check conservation program. Study objectives included describing a contextualized landscape system to reveal variables influencing water use, identifying better ways to evaluate landscape water use, and more effectively targeting and delivering water conservation programs. The study was conducted during the 2004 and 2005 irrigation seasons in Logan City, Utah, in connection with a city-sponsored water check program. In Utah's sixth year of drought, free water checks were offered to all city households and delivered to 148 self-selected volunteers (2004) and 101 recruits from a target sample of above-average water users (2005). The site-specific approach incorporated landscape water checks to inspect residential landscapes, historical ETo data to create irrigation water schedules, survey data to assess water conservation behavior and the effectiveness of a water check program as a conservation tool, remote sensing data to develop household water budgets, and city water billing records to evaluate water consumption during a six-year period (2002 - 2007). The data analysis informed creation of a conceptual framework of the residential landscape system that describes the complex systems thinking required to use water effectively. Water use case studies illustrate the interplay of system domains; site, plant material, irrigation technology, and behavior. Several assessment and monitoring tools were developed to aid in data analysis, which include the Urban Landscape Water Index and Conservation Outcomes Assessment and Intervention Evaluation Tools. Key research findings reveal the influence of sprinkler system controllers, adoption of recommended water schedule and conservation measures, and residential mobility on subsequent water use. Research findings shed light on the complex and contextualized nature of water use in relation to residential landscapes and on methodological issues involved in evaluating conservation program effectiveness. These findings have important implications for the design and implementation of outdoor water conservation programs.

The spatial patterns of land surface and subsurface characteristics determine the spatial heterogeneity of hydrological processes. Soil depth is one of these characteristics and an important input parameter required by distributed hydrological models that explicitly represent spatial heterogeneity. Soil is related to topography and land cover due to the role played by topography and vegetation in affecting soil-forming processes. The research described in this dissertation addressed the development of statistical models that predict the soil depth pattern over the landscape; derivation of new topographic variables evaluated using both serial and parallel algorithms; and evaluation of the impacts of detailed soil depth representation on simulations of stream flow and soil moisture. The dissertation is comprised of three papers. In paper 1, statistical models were developed to predict soil depth pattern over the watershed based on topographic and land cover variables. Soil depth was surveyed at locations selected to represent the topographic and land cover variation at the Dry Creek Experimental Watershed, near Boise, Idaho. Explanatory variables were derived from a digital elevation model and remote sensing imagery for regression to the field data. Generalized Additive and Random Forests models were developed to predict soil depth over the watershed. The models were able to explain about 50% of the soil depth spatial variation, which is an important improvement over the soil depth extracted from the SSURGO national soil database. In paper 2, definitions of the new topographic variables derived in the effort to model soil depth, and serial and Message Passing Interface parallel implementations of the algorithms for their evaluation are presented. The parallel algorithms enhanced the processing speed of large digital elevation models as compared to the serial recursive algorithms initially developed. In paper 3, the impact of spatially explicit soil depth information on simulations of stream flow and soil moisture as compared to soil depth derived from the SSURGO soil database has been evaluated. The Distributed Hydrology Vegetation Soil Model was applied using automated parameter optimization technique with all input parameters the same except soil depth. Stream flow was less impacted by the detailed soil depth information, while simulation of soil moisture was slightly improved due to the detailed representation of soil depth.

In 2014, the global pesticide industry's projected worth is $52 billion and by 2020, the developing world will make up one-third of the world's chemical production and consumption. Pesticides can have unintended negative consequences for human health and the environment, especially in the developing world where regulations are loose or nonexistent. One country with unrestricted use of pesticides is Panam[aacute], especially in Santa Rosa de Cucunatí. In this indigenous village, small-scale farmers and ranchers spray paraquat, glyphosate, picloram, and 2,4-D at higher elevations than the spring water source of a gravity-fed water system, the river, and the village. The objective of this study was to estimate the concentration of these pesticides in the water system and the river and to perform a human health and ecological risk assessment. Pesticide fate and transport models in the graphical user interface EXAMS-PRZMS Exposure Simulation Shell (EXPRESS), which was developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, were used to predict concentrations of the four mentioned pesticides in drinking water and the river using chemical properties, data from Food and Agriculture Organization and Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, and the author's experience as a Peace Corps Volunteer. The results from Tier I model FQPA Index Reservoir Screening Tool (FIRST) were used to compare immediate and delayed rain events, noting minimal difference. The Tier II PRZM-EXAMS shell provided estimated drinking water concentration (EDWC) profiles. The paraquat profile was much lower than picloram, glyphosate, and 2,4-D, which had almost identical profiles with peak concentrations around 12 ppm and the average annual concentration 100 ppb. Average Daily Dose (ADD) via drinking water was calculated for men, women, and children using model results and compared to the oral reference dose (RfD). ADDs only exceeded the RfD with maximum peak EDWCs, implying low risk. However, RfD was used to calculate a breakpoint concentration, the concentration at which each pesticide presents a risk to the consumer. This was then compared to the maximum peak (highest, i.e. worst-case scenario) and annual (lowest, i.e. best-case scenario) EDWC profiles. In the best-case scenario, glyphosate and picloram did not pose a threat, paraquat posed a moderate threat and 2,4-D posed a high threat, with the concentration exceeding the breakpoint for 90 percent of the years. With respect to the worst-case scenario, all four chemicals posed high threats to the consumer. Individual exposure via consumption of fish from the river was calculated using a calculated bioconcentration (BCF) factor and calculated breakpoint concentrations. For the best case scenario, picloram presented a low risk and 2,4-D presented a high risk but for the worst case, both of these chemicals presented a very high risk. An additive exposure of these two human health pathways found that for the best case scenario, exposure from most of the four chemicals did not approach the RfD. However, for the worst-case scenario the exposures were significantly higher than the oral RfD--therefore, between the lowest and the highest concentrations, the general population is at risk. For the ecological risk assessment, the 96-hour peak profile was compared to the 96-hour lethal dose (LD50); glyphosate posed a high risk to fathead minnows and low risk to bluegills and 2,4-D presented a high risk to fathead minnows, low risk to channel catfish, and very high risk to bluegills. A more general risk assessment compared maximum peak and annual concentrations to the US EPA's aquatic life benchmarks. Glyphosate presented no threat and 2,4-D only presented a threat to plants. For picloram, fish were at very high risk at the chronic level and low risk at the acute level, and plants were at moderate risk. Paraquat presented the most significant threat to aquatic life, exceeding benchmarks for all plants and invertebrates at the chronic level 100 percent of the time. It presented no threat to fish in the best-case scenario, but a high risk for fish at the chronic level in the worst case scenario, as well as very high risk for all invertebrates and plants. Improvements in application and watershed protection as part of a multi-disciplinary approach are proposed in place of technological mitigation strategies. Recommendations for future studies include the development of a developing-world context model and experimental studies in the developing world to compare to model results, where possible.

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