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Development of a diffusion based ethanol delivery system to promote reducing environments for the bioremediation of contaminated groundwaterGrassi, Michelle Elenore January 2005 (has links)
[Truncated abstract] An ethanol delivery system, consisting of silicone (poly(dimethylsiloxane)) tubing coiled and shaped as mats, was characterised and evaluated for its potential to act as a permeable reactive barrier (PRB), to promote reducing conditions and enable the enhanced bioremediation of a variety of groundwater contaminants in situ. Aqueous ethanol solutions were recirculated through the inner volume of the silicone polymer tubing in the mat, to allow permeation and delivery of ethanol by diffusion through the tubing walls to a target contamination zone. The aim of the system was to provide control over subsurface geochemistry by overcoming carbon source limitations, and as a result stimulate indigenous bacteria to remove contaminants. The physical properties of the silicone tubing were initially characterised, which included the determination of the ethanol sorption and diffusion properties of the tubing. A model for the mass of ethanol transferred via diffusion from an aqueous solution on the inner volume of a length of polymer tubing was developed to enable prediction of the ethanol delivery capacity of the silicone polymer mats. A number of large-scale laboratory column studies were then conducted to validate this ethanol mass delivery model, and to evaluate the use of silicone polymer mats to deliver ethanol and promote the biodegradation of a range of different contaminated groundwaters. The laboratory column experiments were observed to produce ethanol mass flux delivery statistically similar to that predicted by the model; however this was only with the application of an effective diffusion coefficient within the model, which was determined from the model under subsurface-simulated conditions. Ethanol delivery using the silicone tubing polymer mat system was also quantified in a pilot field-scale demonstration. The mass of ethanol delivery in the field was shown to be within the range of model-predicted ethanol delivery; however delivery was not as consistent and predictable as that observed in the column studies. Successful ethanol enhanced nitrate contamination removal (via denitrification) was observed at a field scale. For field applications, this innovative polymer mat amendment delivery system may provide targeted, predictable and cost-effective amendment delivery compared to aqueous injection methods for groundwater bioremediation, however, knowledge and quantification of the hydrogeology of the particular field site is required. Two other ethanol-driven biologically-mediated contaminant removal processes were also investigated in the laboratory-scale soil column studies, and included the assessment of the removal of dissolved metals/sulfate via sulfate reduction and metalsulfide precipitation, and the removal of trichloroethene via reductive dechlorination.
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Investigating the efficacy of medium pressure UV and hydrogen peroxide as on-farm treatment methods to reduce the microbial load of irrigation waterKotze, Madelize J. 04 1900 (has links)
Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Many South African farmers are forced to use water from nearby rivers for crop irrigation, since it is
the most affordable and sometimes only source of water available to them. During this research
project, a baseline study was performed on a farm irrigating fresh produce with water obtained
from the Eerste River. The baseline study was done over a five month period, at six preselected
sampling points, to determine the microbial and physico-chemical parameters of the water so a
baseline could be established to compare the results to when the ultraviolet (UV) apparatus was
installed (February 2013). Aerobic colony count (ACC), total coliforms (TC) and Escherichia coli
(E. coli) were tested for during the microbiological study, while the physico-chemical analysis
comprised of temperature, pH, conductivity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), alkalinity and total
soluble solids (TSS). The UV treatment study was also performed over a five month timeline, at
eight different sampling points (original six sampling points, with additional sampling points before
and after UV). The same microbiological tests were performed during the UV treatment study, but
turbidity and percentage ultraviolet transmittance (% UVT) were performed additionally during
physico-chemical analysis.
During the baseline study ACC, TC and E. coli counts as high as 9 600 cfu.mL-1, 13 799
MPN.100 mL-1 and 2 098 MPN.100 mL-1 were isolated at the river (Sampling Point 1), respectively.
While performing the UV treatment study ACC, TC and E. coli counts as high as 142 000 cfu.mL-1,
241 960 MPN.100 mL-1 and 6 867 MPN.100 mL-1 were isolated at the river, respectively. As a
result it was concluded that the Eerste River was mostly unsuitable for irrigation of fresh produce
that are consumed raw. The higher counts in the river, during the UV treatment study might be
attributed to the increase in rainfall that occurred in the sampling months (March to July 2013).
The counts as measured at the point of irrigation are considered of greater importance,
since the counts present in the river might still decrease to below the guideline levels after passing
through sand filters and the addition of hydrogen peroxide (current mode of treatment) or after
passing through the UV in the UV treatment study. The ACC, TC and E. coli counts during the
baseline study were as high as 8 800 cfu.mL-1, 24 196 MPN.100 mL-1 and 85 MPN.100 mL-1 at the
point of irrigation (Sampling Point 6), respectively. After hydrogen peroxide addition average logreductions
ranging between 0.65 and 1.13 were seen, but reduction was never constant. The counts at the point of irrigation remained more or less constant compared to the river
due to contamination that occurred at the sand filters, making the water unsuitable for irrigation of
fresh produce in terms of ACC and TC counts. In the UV treatment study ACC, TC and E. coli
counts were as high as 35 000 cfu.mL-1, 10 462 MPN.100 mL-1 and 63 MPN.100 mL-1 at the point
of irrigation (Sampling Point 8), respectively. Average log-reductions in the range of 0.90 to 1.25
were achieved, but it was inconsistent. After treatment with chlorine and re-sanding of the sand
filters, no further contamination occurred and counts decreased to below guideline limits, making
the water safe for irrigational use in terms of all of the microbiological parameters. Not only is UV treatment more effective in reducing microbiological counts than H2O2, it is also relatively less
expensive in the long term. Hydrogen peroxide treatment of water amounts to a very high capital
expense every month, whereas UV may seem expensive when starting up, but the monthly
operating cost thereafter is marginally less than for H2O2.
It is of great importance to farmers to find a treatment that would reduce the counts in the
river water to below the guideline limits required for safe irrigation since pathogens can be carried
over from water onto fresh produce, resulting in an increase in produce-associated foodborne
outbreaks and loss of consumer trust. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Menigte Suid-Afrikaners is afhanklik van nabygeleë riviere om hulle oeste te besproei aangesien
dit meestal die mees bekostigbare en soms enigste bron tot hul beskikking is. Tydens hierdie
projek is ‘n grondslag sowel as ‘n UV behandelingsmetode studie uitgevoer op ‘n plaas wat vars
vrugte en groente besproei met water water wat hul vanuit die Eersterivier verkry. Die
grondslagstudie is oor ‘n tydperk van vyf maande uitgevoer by ses voorafgekose punte. Dit is
gedoen om die mikrobiologiese sowel as chemiese parameters van die water te bepaal sodat ‘n
grondslag beskikbaar kon wees om met resultate te vergelyk wat met behulp van die
ultravioletmasjien verkry is (in Februarie 2013 geïnstalleer). Tydens die mikrobiologiese studie is
daar vir aerobiese koliform tellings (ACC), totale koliforme (TC) en Escherichia coli (E. coli)
getoets. Tydens die chemiese analise is temperatuur, pH, konduktiwiteit, chemiese suurstof
benodiging, alkaliniteit en totale oplosbaie vastestowwe in die water getoets. Die UV
behandelingsmetode studie is ook oor ‘n tydperk van vyf maande uitgevoer, met twee addisionale
toetspunte by. Presies dieselfde mikrobiologiese analises as wat tydens die grondslag studie
uitgevoer is, is tydens die UV behandelingsmetode studie uitgevoer, maar vir die chemiese analise
het turbiditeit en persentasie ultraviolet transmissie van die water bygekom.
Gedurende die grondslag studie was ACC, TC and E. coli tellings so hoog as 9 600
cfu.mL-1, 13 799 MPN.100 mL-1 en 2 098 MPN.100 mL-1 onderskeidelik uit die rivier geïsoleer
(Punt 1). Tydens die UV behandelingsmetode studie was ACC, TC en E. coli tellings so hoog as
142 000 cfu.mL-1, 241 960 MPN.100 mL-1 en 6 867 MPN.100 mL-1 onderskeidelik by die rivier
geïsoleer. Gevolglik is daar afgelei dat die Eersterivier se water meestal ongeskik is om te gebruik
vir die besproeiing van vars groente en vrugte wat rou geëet word sonder dat enige verdere
behandeling plaasvind. Die hoër tellings wat tydens die UV behandelingsmetode in die rivier
sigbaar was kan hoofsaaklik toegeskryf word aan die toename in reënval in daardie tyd (Maart tot
Julie 2013).
Tellings soos gemeet by die punt van besproeiing is wel van groter belang as die wat
aangeteken is by die rivier; aangesien die tellings wat in die rivier aangeteken is steeds kan
afneem tot onder aanvaarbare hoeveelhede soos in die standaarde uiteengesit, want die water
moet steeds deur sandfilters beweeg en word ook huidiglik deur waterstofperoksied behandel
tydens die die grondslagstudie of beweeg deur die UV apparaat in die UV behandelingsmetode
studie. Die ACC, TC en E. coli tellings soos gemeet by die besproeiingspunt (Punt 6) was so hoog
as 8 800 cfu.mL-1, 24 196 MPN.100 mL-1 en 85 MPN.100 mL-1, onderskeidelik. Na
waterstofperoksied byvoeging was die gemiddelde log-reduksies sigbaar, tussen 065 en 1.13,
maar afnames was nooit konstant nie. Die tellings by die punt van besproeiing het ongeveer
konstant gebly in vergelyking met die tellings wat by die rivier aangeteken is; moontlik as gevolg
van die hoë kontaminasie vlakke in die sandfilters. Kontaminasie van sandfilters het veroorsaak
dat die water ongeskik was vir die gebruik van besproeiing van vars groente as gevolg van die hoë ACC en TC vlakke. Tydens die UV behandelingsmetode studie is ACC, TC en E. coli tellings so
hoog as 35 000 cfu.mL-1, 10 462 MPN.100 mL-1 en 63 MPN.100 mL-1, onderskeidelik aangeteken
(Punt 8). Gemiddelde log-reduksies tussen 0.90 tot 1.25 was verkry, maar behandeling en
afnames in tellings was nie konstant nie. Nadat die sandfilters met chloor behandel is en die sand
daarin vervang is, het geen verdere kontaminasie by die punt voorgekom nie. Nadat al die
voorafgenoemde behandelings afgehandel is, het die tellings tot laer as die van die standaarde
gedaal en dus was die water nou veilig om te gebruik vir besproeiingsdoeleindes in terme van die
mikrobiologiese parameters. Die UV behandelingsmetode is nie net meer effektief in die verlaging
van mikrobiologiesese tellings as waterstofperoksied nie, dis ook heelwat goedkoper in die
langtermyn. Waterstofperoksied behandeling van water lei tot ‘n baie hoë kapitale onkoste per
maand, terwyl UV baie duur mag voorkom in die beginfase, maar die maandelikse kostes is
aansienlik laer as die van waterstofperoksied en maak sodoende op daarvoor.
Dit is van uiterste belang vir boere om ‘n water behandelingsmetode te vind wat die hoë
tellings in die rivier sal afbring tot laer as Suid-Afrikaanse en Kanadese riglyne; aangesien
patogene oorgedra kan word van vars vrugte en groente. Laasgenoemde kan tot ‘n drastiese
toename in vars voedsel geassosieerde siektes en gevolglik ‘n afname in die vertroue wat ‘n kliënt
in ‘n produk plaas, lei.
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Enhancement of membrane surface characteristics to improve membrane performance and durability in the treatment of municipal MBR effluentKasongo Wa Kasongo, Godwill January 2018 (has links)
Thesis (Master of Engineering in Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. / Fresh, clean water has always been critical for the world's social development. Supply of water can be reinforced through recycling and reuse; and secondary treatment of municipal wastewater effluent with a membrane bioreactor (MBR) followed by a reverse osmosis (RO) process, has emerged as a crucial treatment process for water reuse. However, fouling of RO membranes in such process is unavoidable. This leads to poor performance, increase in operational cost and degradation of the membrane material, which reduces the membrane life span. Various researches have been conducted to provide an understanding of the mechanism of fouling, and methods have been developed to minimize it. In this research, the effect of surface modification to minimise fouling on a thin film composite polyamide RO membrane was investigated. This study was divided into three parts, namely: membrane modification, biofouling and filtration using RO. Two modifying agents, PVA and DMAEMA, were used as grafting solutions. Escherichia coli (E. coli) were used as the biofoulant to study the ant-biofouling properties of the membranes. A make-up synthetic MBR secondary effluent feed was used in a bench scale RO process. During the membrane modification process, the membrane was treated using two different approaches. Firstly, the covalent attachment of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) through Glutaraldehyde (GA) onto the surface and secondly the redox initiated grafting of dimethyl amino ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA PVA and DMAEMA grafting solutions were applied at four different concentrations).
The PVA and DMAEMA modifying agents were successfully grafted onto the membrane top layers and were confirmed by the functional groups, present, using the Attenuated Total Reflectance–Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) spectra. The morphology of the membrane surfaces was investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), before and after treatment. SEM analysis showed better membrane structures with PVA grafting compared to DMAEMA.
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The Photolytic Ozonation of Organics in Aqueous SolutionsHuang, Francis Y. 05 1900 (has links)
The aim of the investigation described in this work is to gain a better understanding of the processes involved in the oxidation of organic compounds by photolytic ozonation in a laboratory scale reactor. The results and discussions are presented in Chapter III. This chapter contains four parts. In the first part, mass transfer efficiency and the calculation of the mass transfer coefficient, KLa, as well as the ozone decomposition rate constant, KD, are presented and compared with those obtained by other investigators. The second part deals with the kinetics of the photolysis of 2,2',4,4',6,6'-hexachlorobiphenyl both in purified and natural lake water. Mathematical expressions and a discussion of the possible reaction processes involved are given. Kinetic models of ozonation and photolytic ozonation in purified and natural lake water are developed and discussed in part three. Rate constants are calculated from experimental data and used to predict values of substrate destruction with a mathematical model. The fourth part of this chapter deals with the identification of products from the photolysis, ozonation and photolytic ozonation of 2,2'4,4',6,6'-hexachlorobiphenyl. The products are isolated and identified using combined gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy, and reaction mechanisms are suggested.
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A solar water purification system for rural areasKoura Mbadinga, Pauline Joella January 2015 (has links)
Thesis (MTech (Mechanical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2015. / Access to adequate quantities of clean drinking water has become a serious issue on the
worldwide level. This is particularly true in arid and rural areas where for the majority of
people water is a limited and a vulnerable resource. These water sources which are often
highly contaminated are potentially the cause for several diseases (waterborne diseases) and
ultimately death especially in infants. Due to poverty and sometimes to the remote conditions
of their regions, the population is unable to afford adequate water purification technologies,
since they are relatively expensive and energy intensive. It is therefore vital to investigate
appropriate water purification technology that people can afford or construct, operate and
maintain themselves.
A promising technology is solar distillation for the supply of drinking water on a small-scale
level. It has proved to be a unique purification method as it can purify almost any type of
water by using the high solar energy potential of the affected regions. The most basic form of
solar distillation is the use of a single basin single slope solar still. However the downside of
this technology is that it presents a low efficiency and productivity. To try to tackle this
problem, many studies have been carried out to enhance productivity, effectiveness and
efficiency of single-basin solar stills.
In this present study, a solar distillation unit was designed, fabricated and experimentally
tested. Its performance in terms of distillate output and energy efficiency was analysed under
Cape Town conditions and compared to similar stills that have been reported in the literature.
The main configuration of the solar still is a double glazed single basin solar still coupled to
an external condenser.
The study indicated that the performance of the solar still unit can be enhanced by increasing
the evaporation rate which is a combined effect of solar radiation, ambient temperature, and
the system components temperature. It was concluded that the applied techniques such as the
external condenser, double glazing, good insulation and low level of water are effective. The
unit was found to have an efficiency ranging between 21 and 29% over the test period and a
mean distillate yield of about 2.5 litres per square meter was achieved per day.
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Forward osmosis membranes for direct fertigation within the South African wine industryAugustine, Robyn January 2017 (has links)
Thesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / Water scarcity in South Africa (SA) and more specifically Cape Town, Western Cape, has escalated to disaster levels in 2018. Agriculture and irrigation account for 62% of SA’s accessible potable water (Thopil & Pouris, 2016), and although the agriculture sector plays a pivotal role in SA’s socio-economic development, the future of the sector is dependent on critical issues such as climate variability and population growth (Besada & Werner, 2015). Wine production in SA is an important agricultural activity, contributing great economic value to the agri-food sector. However, despite this, the wine industry is responsible for vast water consumption and the unsafe disposal of winery wastewater, which are critical issues from an environmental and economic standpoint.
The ever-imminent crisis pertaining to the limited supply of fresh water from conventional water resources has necessitated the need to develop alternative water resources to supplement an increased water supply, which include the reuse of wastewater, ground water, brackish water (BW) and seawater (SW) desalination. When fresh water supplies are limited, agricultural irrigation is penalised. The reuse of agricultural wastewater as a substitution for potable water irrigation may prove beneficial in areas where water shortages are severe.
Forward osmosis (FO) is a developing desalination technology that has received increased attention as a promising lower-energy desalination technology. FO technology relies on the natural osmotic process, driven by a concentration gradient as opposed to significant hydraulic pressures like reverse osmosis (RO). Water is extracted from a lower concentrated feed solution (FS) to a highly concentrated draw solution (DS). The term “lower energy” is only applicable for applications where the recovery of the DS is not required. FO technology offers several advantages. However, the lack of suitable membrane modules and DSs hinder its practical application. FO offers novelty applications in which specialised DSs are selected to serve as the final product water, most notably concentrated fertilisers for direct fertigation.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance and compatibility of commercially available cellulose triacetate (CTA) and aquaporin biomimetic FO membranes with commonly used fertilisers for direct fertigation within the SA wine industry, using a fertiliser drawn forward osmosis (FDFO) system.
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Evaluation of water treatment processes in the removal of natural organic matter from water and its disinfection by-products using cyclodextrin polyurethanesMatsebula, Banelisiwe 18 October 2012 (has links)
M.Sc. / Natural Organic Matter (NOM) is a complex of organic material present in a natural surface water. Odour, taste and acidity are some of the problems associated with NOM in water systems. Futhermore, it causes the yellow or brown colour of water, whic is aesthetically unpleasant to consumers. NOM is also the energy source of bacterial re-growth and aids in the transportation of metal ions in the distribution system.Moreover, NOM in water can react with disinfectants, e.g. chlorine, to form disinfection by products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and habacetic acids (HAAs). DBPs have recently been found to have adverse effects in humans. This study was undertaken in order to assess the effectiveness of some of the water treatment techniques employed by selected water supplying companies in dealing with NOM. To achive this, the water treatment processes used by these companies to reduce NOM and metal ions were coagulation, sand filtration, the use of granular activated carbon, ozonation and chlorination. In addition, β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) polyurethanes synthesized in our laboratories were used to remove the DBPs present in the water samples.
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Electrospun nanofibers decorated with silver nanoparticles for fouling controlMsomi, Phumlani Fortune 02 July 2015 (has links)
M.Tech. (Chemistry) / This work focused on the in-situ decoration of polyethersulfone (PES) nanofiber mats with silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using an electrospinning technique. The biocidal and organic properties of the Ag decorated nanofibers were evaluated. Electrospinning of Ag decorated nanofibers was also carried out on a mixed matrix membrane support composed of nitrogen doped carbon nanotube (N-CNTs) and PES to fabricate a unique bi-faceted membrane. PES was dissolved in a solution containing silver nitrate (AgNO3) and N,Ndimethylacetamide (DMAc). The polymer solution was dissolved at 80ºC for 3 h under reflux until a yellow homogeneous solution was obtained which indicated the in-situ formation of AgNPs. The polymer solution was cooled and stored to remove air-bubbles. An ultraviolet - visible (UV – Vis) spectrometer was used to confirm the presence of AgNPs, while a Malvern nanosizer was used to estimate the size distribution of the AgNPs in the PES polymer matrix. The solution was electrospun on an aluminium (foil) collecting plate. Biocidal properties of the material were evaluated using Gram-positive (G+) Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and ram-negative (G-) Escherichia coli (E. coli) by the zone inhibition method. The silver decorated polyethersulfone nanofibers showed good antibacterial activity against both G+ S. aureus and G- E. coli.
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The profiling and treatability of natural organic matter in South African raw water sources using enhanced coagulationDlamini, Sisekelo Peter 21 August 2012 (has links)
M.Sc. / Drinking water treatment plants in South Africa rely almost entirely on surface water sources, which are often compromised due to high return flows and indirect reuse. The typical treatment plants focus on the removal of physical and microbial contaminants which include turbidity, colour, chemical compounds and micro-organisms. A relatively new alarm to this list is natural organic matter (NOM) which has become a major concern in potable water treatment due to its recent regulation. Conventionally, the drive to remove NOM from potable water would be the desire to remove colour from public water supplies. However, more problems in drinking water treatment associated with NOM have been recently identified. These include taste and odour, its tendency to foul membranes, interference with the removal of other contaminants and its potential to contribute to corrosion and slime growth in distribution systems. Moreover, it causes high demands for coagulants and disinfectants. The NOM is also the main precursor for disinfection by-products (DBPs) formed when it interacts with disinfectants such as chlorine during water disinfection. In this study, different raw water samples, of different NOM composition were collected from selected sources across the country and assessed for the removal of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and UV absorbance at a wavelength of 254 nm (UV 254) using enhanced coagulation (EC). The efficacy of EC, which can be employed as a practical technology in the removal of both turbidity and NOM, was evaluated in these raw water sources. Jar tests were conducted with ferric chloride as the coagulant, and specific pH values were chosen as target values guiding the different coagulant dosages for the jar tests. The pH of the low-alkalinity (<60 mg/ℓ CaCO3) raw waters were adjusted and raised by the addition of sodium carbonate. Algorithms for finding the optimum coagulant dosage for both turbidity and UV 254 removal were developed and consistently applied to all the results in independent v batch tests, in which residual amounts of UV 254, DOC and turbidity were measured. The raw water parameters and results obtained from these tests were used to develop feed-forward multiplicative models predicting the performance of EC using ferric chloride. The results showed that the raw waters chosen were, indeed, representative of the different water types present in South Africa, and that the general water characteristics were affected by seasonal variations. The EC procedure developed was able to reduce turbidity to levels low enough for removal by subsequent treatment steps in the water treatment train. The residual UV 254 values were in all cases lower than 6 m-1, which theoretically corresponds to about 3.5 mg/ℓ DOC. This was confirmed by the residual DOC values which were found to be lower than 4 mg/ℓ. Generally, the waters of South Africa were found to be amenable to coagulation. In almost all cases, the costs for EC were comparable to those for conventional coagulation, hence EC could be employed as a NOM removal strategy in the South African context.
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Natural organic matter removal from surface waters by enhanced coagulation, granular activated carbon adsorption and Ion exchangeLobanga, Kaluka Paul 17 September 2014 (has links)
M.Ing. (Civil Engineering) / Natural organic matter (NOM) is a complex mixture of organic compounds resulting from the decay of plants and animals. When not properly removed, NOM reacts with disinfectants to form disinfection by-products, of which some are known to be carcinogenic. Regulations have become more and more stringent about the maximum level of NOM in drinking water. Different water treatment processes can be applied to remove NOM. However, because each process targets specific fractions of NOM, this results in the existence of recalcitrant NOM fractions that are not removed, for each treatment process. The main objective of the study was thus to investigate NOM removal by using three advanced water treatment processes alone and in combination. The processes used were enhanced coagulation, granular activated carbon adsorption and ion exchange resin processes. Strong and weak base ion exchange resins were used. Although NOM removal methods have been investigated intensively, little attention is given to a so-called “multi-barrier” approach of NOM removal through enhanced coagulation, granular activated carbon adsorption and ion exchange resin that could be applied in practice. In order to take the seasonal and geographical variability of NOM into account, water samples were collected at eight geographical areas over five to seven seasons from 2010 to 2013. Results showed that different treatment processes remove different NOM fractions with different efficiency. Results also confirmed that EC performs better than the adsorptive treatment processes. But the literature shows that NOM removal by EC is difficult for water with high alkalinity and low SUVA values, which is common with SA waters. The adsorptive processes used for NOM removal revealed that they are not viable options, because even low percentage of NOM removal would require high adsorbent dosages, which removes this approach as a practical option.
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