Thesis (MTech (Biomedical Technology))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012. / In many developed countries worldwide the provision of safe, clean water is an expected commodity. In South Africa however, as in most developing countries, the access and supply of water safe for human consumption is challenged or complicated by pollution and more recently water availability. Point-source pollutants in surface- and groundwater are normally the most concentrated closest to the pollutant source (such as the end of a pipe or an underground injection system). Examples of point-source pollution are commercial and industrial businesses, that often discharge waste such as solvents and heavy metals from their operations. In contrast, non-point-source pollution occurs due to runoff moving across or through the ground and absorbing and accumulating pollutants which eventually end up in streams, rivers and dams. The lack of waste removal and adequate sanitation facilities results in the disposal of faecal matter and sewage into storm water drains which flow directly into the river systems contributing to the incidence of diseases such as gastroenteritis, diarrhoea and chronic lung ailments, caused by waterborne pathogenic bacteria, viruses and fungi.

M.Sc. (Environmental Management) / Wetlands play a significant role in our environment as they provide a variety of goods, services and benefits to living species ranging from humans, animals and plants to microorganisms. Despite their importance, wetlands have somewhat been neglected over the past few years which has led to a rapid deterioration of wetland conditions and functions. Wetlands provide unique functions that cannot be provided by any other ecosystem; their value was recognised in the 1960s. Prior to this realisation the value of wetlands had been seriously underestimated to the extent where they were even previously labelled as “wastelands”. The reality is that to date minimal measures have been put in place to assist in the rehabilitation and future conservation of wetlands. The lack of wetland management and monitoring can be attributed to the fact that very little is known about the functioning of some of the wetland systems. Endorheic wetlands have recently been emerging as ecosystems of importance. Very little is known about endorheic wetlands and their ecological functioning. To date a fair amount of studies have been conducted on the pans in Mpumalanga and in the Free State but minimal information exists on the pans in the North West Province. The objectives of this study were therefore to compare the abiotic and biotic composition of pans in Mpumalanga and North West Provinces, in order to contribute to the knowledge which will eventually assist in devising rehabilitation measures and future conservation of pans in the area. Three different water ecosystem components were studied; these included aquatic invertebrate communities, water quality and sediment characteristics. The collected water samples were taken to an accredited laboratory to be analysed. When compared between the two provinces, the water-quality results indicated differences between provinces as well as among individual pans. However, most of the pans in both provinces show characteristics of being dystrophic alkaline systems. The invertebrates were collected using sweep nets and stored in jars containing 5% neutrally buffered formalin and a staining agent (Rose Bengal). The sediment characteristics were determined by using standard techniques and results showed that there were no obvious similarities between the different pans in the different provinces. Water-quality analyses were performed on samples taken during both winter- and summer-sampling surveys and these samples were analysed by a reputable laboratory. Based on the analyses of the invertebrate community samples, 25 taxa were identified; results show similarities in the structure of communities in both provinces with the exception of one or two different species. Sampling was conducted over a period of two seasons at all sampling points and several species were found belonging to different families. Invertebrates sampled in Mpumalanga pans were similar to those reported in previous studies done in the area and most of the invertebrates sampled in Mpumalanga and the North West are known to be commonly found in temporary habitats. Spatial and temporal variations in invertebrate assemblages were determined; this analysis displayed differences in the different variables (biotic, physical and chemical) tested over the two seasons. The pans in Mpumalanga were dominated by coarse sand. Large amounts of coarse sand accompanied by poor water quality were observed in MP Pan A in Mpumalanga Province; this could be an indication of somewhat poor catchment management. The results of the abiotic and biotic comparison show that there are minor similarities and differences among the selected pans studied in each province. The knowledge acquired can now be utilised to enhance the available literature on these pans. Long-term studies have to be done to better understand the ecological functioning of the pans in the North West Province in order to devise mitigation measures as well as appropriate rehabilitation strategies and conservation measures.

M.Sc. (Aquatic Health) / Wetlands play an extremely important role in the hydrological cycle as well as biodiversity. Until recently, however, wetlands in South Africa have been neglected both in terms of research and monitoring. The lack of knowledge is even greater for the inward draining wetlands, which is better known as pans. Pans are isolated aquatic systems, which are quite shallow and do not have an outlet. Pans receive water from precipitation and surface runoff, and lose water mainly through evaporation. Some pans can be ephemeral (dry up often) and other perennial (dry up only during drought). The little ecological knowledge available is mainly focused on these ephemeral pans. In this present study conducted in the Western Free-State province, study was only focused on the perennial pans in this area. Due to the fact that this province are one of the biggest areas for gold mining in the country, the pans suffer under the impacts, and this results in the alteration of community structures in and around the pan, simplifying food chains which can lead to the collapse of an ecosystem. The aim of the study was to assess the water quality, bioaccumulation of toxicants (metals and pesticides) in sediment and aquatic invertebrate community of perennial pans in the Western Free State Province, mainly because of the lack of literature on pans in these areas. Seventeen pans were selected for the study of which eight were classified as saline eutrophic and nine as alkaline dystrophic. Various physico-chemical and sediment characteristics were assessed in addition to the characterization of the aquatic invertebrate communities. It became clear that there is great difference in the physical-chemical characteristics of the selected pans. The difference in the trophic state was the most clear, with differences in water colour, nutrient concentration and vegetation growth, classifying pans as either saline eutrophic or alkaline dystrophic. These trophic states influence the distribution and richness of aquatic invertebrates in certain pans. Mining activity, urbanization, agricultural activities and sewage runoff into the pan, all affects the pans negatively, there is sighs of water quality degradation as well as changes in the community structure of invertebrates when compared to the reference pans.

M.Sc. / The Vaal River is the main source of water supply to the central industrial, mining and metropolitan regions of South Africa, and is, therefore, strictly regulated by small dams and weirs. The Vaal Dam is the main regulator of water to the Vaal River and is of great importance as it supplies water for human consumption and also to the industrial powerhouse of South Africa. Situated at the confluence of its major tributaries, namely the Vaal and Wilge Rivers, and straddling the convergence of the borders of Gauteng, Free State and Mpumalanga provinces, the Vaal Dam is approximately 77 km south of Johannesburg. It is South Africa’s second-largest dam in terms of area, and third-largest in terms of volume, and is a key component in South Africa’s water supply infrastructure. Gauteng, as well as the surrounding provinces are reliant on it for their water supply. Water flow fluctuations are deemed to be important as they could negatively impact upon the water quality. Knowledge of the relationship between fluctuating water flows and water quality is important as strategies can then be devised on this basis to improve the freshwater situation of the country, the associated management systems, and treatment technologies. By establishing the nature of the respective relationships between high water flow and the selected water quality parameters, ways could be found of reducing the costs of water quality problems, such as eutrophication. The various relationships between high water flow and the selected water quality parameters of the Vaal Dam that were established during the course of this study are as follows: In terms of pH, the study found that in the event of a decline in the water flow, the pH value increased and the water body became more alkaline. A decrease in water flow was also found to be associated with an increase in EC. An increase in water flow was found to be associated with a decrease in pH, EC and Chlorophyll-a. An increase in water flow up to a certain level was found to be associated with an increase in nitrates, sulphates and COD.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering, Department of Industrial Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2017. / Access to clean and adequate water is a universal and basic human right that feeds into the 6th of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This goal aims at ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Clean water is referred to as potable water, which is safe for human consumption and offer low risk of immediate or long term harm. Raw water undergoes rigorous processing which consists of coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection and storage, to produce potable water. Each module or stage consumes chemicals and energy resources and thus incurs costs. To achieve the aim of the study, which was to synthesize an optimised potable water treatment network and a water usage analysis model, the Umzinto Water Treatment Plant (UWTP) and its distribution system was used as the study area. This treatment plant is located within Umdoni, a local municipality of the Ugu District Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. This study’s objectives were fourfold and the first objective was to identify and quantify key raw water quality parameters affecting treatment at the UWTP. The second objective was to design a genetic algorithm for the potable water treatment process control. The third objective was to evaluate the Umzinto Water Distribution System’s Non-Revenue Water (NRW) while the fourth objective was to develop a model for water usage analysis. For the first objective, data for water quality parameters for the water treatment from July 2006 to June 2013 were statistically analysed. This data were collected from the UWTP’s historical records. To improve the data’s integrity it was pre-processed using cubic hermite interpolation. After the pre-processing trend lines and box plots were used to determine the parameters’ significance compared to the standard values stipulated in the South African National Standard (SANS 241). The trend lines were used to analyse the frequency of observations that were higher than the standard values according to SANS 241. The box plots were used to determine the minimum, median, maximum and mean of the data sets. The mean values for each parameter were compared to the SANS 241 value to determine their significance. The raw water quality parameters were then correlated to the chemical dosages for lime, polymer, potassium permanganate and chlorine. The key parameters selected from the correlation analysis were algal count, manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), Escherichia coli, total coliforms, colour, odour, conductivity, turbidity, suspended solids (SS), pH, temperature, total organic carbon (TOC,) and Hardness. A number of methods can be used to achieve such optimisation, including artificial neural networks, dynamic programming, linear and non-linear programming, and this study utilised a genetic algorithm as an optimisation tool to achieve the second objective of optimising water treatment at the UWTP. For the model development, data from the correlations obtained for objective 1 were used. The model was aimed at reducing the cost of chemical dosage and four chemical dosage prediction models were developed using genetic algorithms and these were then used to produce a combined chemical dosage cost prediction model. The programming interface utilised for these models was Matlab. In developing these models, the data were first pre-processed to remove outliers and fill in the blanks using a Microsoft Excel Add-in that was developed for this particular purpose. The next step involved a curve fitting exercise in Microsoft Excel 2013. Matlab was then used to code the genetic algorithm that combined and optimised the solutions obtained from the curve fittings. The results showed that genetic algorithms can be reliably used to predict the chemical dosages and hence reduce water treatment costs. After treatment, water is pumped into the distribution system for consumption. It is therefore important to ensure that all the pumped out treated water reaches the consumer. The third objective therefore assessed the NRW for the Umzinto Water Distribution System for the period between July 2013 and June 2014. The data used for this objective was provided by the Ugu District Municipality. The method used combined the top-down approach and the component-based approach. This combined approach was modified to enable the calculation of all the components that are required in a standard South African Water Balance. The results showed that the distribution system had a high value of NRW, which was 27.9% of the System Input Volume. The major component of NRW was Real Losses, that is, losses that can be mitigated by improving maintenance. The fourth objective was to develop a model for water usage analysis that would reduce the time taken to evaluate NRW and also improve the analysis of the NRW components using Microsoft Visual Basics 2012 and Microsoft SQL Server 2012 development interfaces. The Visual Basics enabled the development of a graphic user interface that was user-friendly and minimised the time taken to learn the software. The software platform developed was able to import the data required to construct a standard International Water Asssociation (IWA) Water Balance, calculate all the components of NRW, store historical data for the water distribution systems and report on a rolling year basis. A model for water usage analysis was developed and made available for usage by practitioners in Ugu District. The model was developed for the specific study area and further studies would be required in order to validate it in a different setting. The results obtained for the first objective led to the conclusion that, there was very high pollution emanating from communities and activities close to the raw water sources, especially the EJ Smith Dam. The results from the first objective were also used to determine parameters for the models developed in the second objective. From objective two it was concluded that genetic algorithms can be reliably used to predict chemical dosages and hence reduce water treatment costs. The third objective’s results showed that 27.9% of treated water pumped into the distribution system is NRW. Which is a concern because 65% of this are real losses which have maintenance related problems. The fourth objective’s results showed the practicality of designing model that could be used determine all the important components of NRW that would take time to evaluate manually. It would also store historical data for the water distribution system and report on a rolling year basis. Implementation of this software would help minimise the errors associated with manual calculation of NRW and improve the availability of data for research and analysis. From the research findings, it is recommended that the treatment plant should change the way it is dosing chemicals in the balancing tank. The method currently being used is prone to error. The analysis of NRW showed that Real Losses were a major challenge in the Umzinto Distribution System. There is need to develop a maintenance program to cater for leakage. Communities also need to be educated on the importance of reporting leakage in the network. / M

MESMEG / Department of Mining and Environmental Geology / This dissertation focused on the assessment of borehole yields within the Nzhelele- Makhado area, which is located in the northern part of South Africa within the Vhembe District Municipality of Limpopo Province. The aim of the study was to identify factors that influence the yields of water supply boreholes within the study area. This information will be used to improve the groundwater resource knowledge required in assessing the potential of groundwater resources in augmenting the Nzhelele Regional Water Supply Scheme. The study area is mostly underlain by the ‘hard rock’ formations of the Soutpansberg Group, which practically has no primary porosity. The groundwater is residing mainly within the weathered and fractured or discontinuities, considered being secondary porosities. Due to the complexity of the underlying fractured and hard rock aquifer systems and the fact that most of the boreholes drilled in the area were not scientifically sited, the study area is dominated by very low yielding boreholes. Majority (48%) of the boreholes were drilled into the Nzhelele formation due to the fact that it occupies the central, relatively flat and low lying sections of the study area. The variations in average yields in boreholes drilled in different formations within the study area is relatively low suggesting that the difference in lithology of different formations do not to have any major influence in the yields of boreholes. The topographical settings of the area do not have any influence in the borehole drilling depths and yields. The high borehole yields in shallow boreholes located in mountainous areas is due to local groundwater systems, which recharges and discharges locally. Mapped lineaments are slightly low yielding (average yield of 0.32 l/s) compared to the faults (average yield of 0.43 l/s) within the study area. Boreholes drilled along the NE-SW trending lineaments support double the yields (0.41 l/s) on average of those along the SE-NW (0.28 l/s) and W-E (0.20 l/s) trending lineaments. The high yields in boreholes closer to non-perennial streams compared to perennial rivers is due to the fact that non-perennial streams are comprised of thick layer of overburden capable of supporting high yielding boreholes, whereas the overburden along the perennial rivers are washed away during rainy season leaving bedrock exposed or covered with thin layer of sediments. The proximity to the young faults trending SE-NW and dry non-perennial streams has proved to be the most the favourable areas for development of high yielding boreholes in the study area, compared to lithological difference and topographical settings of the area. However, it should be noted that there are no simple relationship between various factors that control the yield of the boreholes in the area. Despite the similarities in some factors that influence borehole productivity on a regional scale such as faults and drainage systems, the complexity of the weathered-fractured aquifer system suggests an over-riding influence of local features, which results in significant variations in yield and response to abstraction. / NRF

Thesis (M.Sc. (Geography)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Various studies have indicated problems of water pollution in South Africa, with some of them highlighting the high concentrations of chemical pollutants in the Loskop Dam. These reports show how pollution in the dam has affected aquatic life and poses a health risk. However, limited studies have been conducted on the impact of declining water quality on tourism in Loskop Dam. These studies focus more on the ecological aspect of the dam. Therefore, the main objective of the current study is to explore how tourism is affected by the declining water quality in Loskop Dam by examining the impacts of water pollution on the tourism sector linked to Loskop Dam and associated socio-economic effects. A questionnaire-based survey was conducted to collect information from small and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) employees and freshwater tourists, and interviews were conducted with SME managers to get more information on tourism activities, water pollution in Loskop Dam, as well as information on the impacts of decreased water quality. The outcome is that a decrease in water quality affects tourism negatively, inclusive of recreational activities, business operations, and subsequently having a negative social and economic impact on Loskop visitors and employees. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Saldanha-Langebaan coastal zone is an important natural resource and serves as habitat for several endangered bird and fish species. Development in this coastal zone holds a constant threat for the natural environment and has a negative impact on the water quality of the bay. It is therefore essential to manage the water quality to ensure fitness for use for all the beneficial users in this coastal zone. This study focuses on the utilization and management of the Saldanha-Langebaan coastal zone. The beneficial users have different water quality requirements. It is therefore important to identify all the different water uses and to determine the occurrence of pollution and the dispersion thereof in the bay. The biophysical characteristics of the natural resource are described as part of the objective determining phase of the integrated water quality management process. The thesis also focuses on the inauguration and functioning of an integrated water quality management organization and the development and implementation of a long term monitoring program, with special emphasis on the sediment en health monitoring results. The result of this research study is a functional management instrument for integrated water quality monitoring and management in the Saldanha-Langebaan coastal zone. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Saldanha-Langebaan kussone is 'n belangrike natuurlike hulpbron en dien as habitat vir verskeie bedreigde voel- en visspesies. Hierdie kussone is egter ook onder konstante ontwikkelingsdruk wat 'n negatiewe impak op die watergehalte van die baai het. Dit is dus noodsaaklik dat die watergehalte so bestuur word dat dit geskik bly vir al die gemeenskaplike watergebruikers in hierdie kussone. In hierdie studie is die benutting en bestuur van die Saldanha-Langebaan kussone ondersoek. Verskillende watergebruikers het uiteenlopende watergehaltebehoeftes en dit is noodsaaklik om die verskillende watergebruikers, sowel as die voorkoms en verspreiding van besoedeling in hierdie gebied te identifiseer. Die biofisiese eienskappe van die natuurlike kusopvanggebied is beskryf as deel van die aanvanklike doelwitbepalingsfase van geïntegreerde watergehaltebestuur. Die tesis fokus ook op die stigting en werkswyse van 'n geïntegreerde watergehaltebestuursliggaam, asook die ontwerp en implementering van 'n langtermyn moniteringsprogram. Daar is veral gelet op die resultate van die . sediment- en bakteriologiese moniteringsprogram. Die resultaat van die navorsingsproses is die totstandkoming van 'n funksionele bestuursliggaam wat as instrument dien vir geïntegreerde monitering en bestuur van die watergehalte in die Saldanha-Langebaan kussone.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Agriculture)) -- Central University of Technology, Free state, 2011 / Quality assessment of agricultural water used for fertigation in the Boland district. The study was undertaken to determine the influence of seasonal changes on the water quality (chemical and microbial analyses) of five different rivers in the Boland. The data was collected in the five most important water sources that are used for irrigation purposes in the district, i.e. Berg river, Eerste river, Klapmuts River, Klippies river and Krom river. The samples were collected from all sites once every three weeks for a period of six months. The sampling was carried out during specific periods in summer (December, 2006 to February, 2007) and winter (June to August, 2007). The results of the study showed that Klapmuts river recorded the highest levels of chloride and iron, especially in summer. However, chloride levels were far below the levels set by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Results obtained from this study show the presence of pathogens in some of the rivers assessed which may have resulted from the leaching of these pathogens from nearby agricultural land, livestock watering or informal settlements in the catchment areas. The bigger rivers recorded low levels of micro-elements and this might have been affected by winter rainfall. In the Berg River, many sources of nitrate pollution seem to be present in the catchment area. The levels of iron in all the rivers assessed were far more than the levels set by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in all rivers assessed and these might be due to the pH levels and interaction between the rivers and seasons. Iron and manganese levels should be kept low as this may cause production problems by blocking irrigation drippers. The water samples tested for bacterial and fungal density showed Klapmuts and Eerste rivers were positive for Phytophthora cinnamomi during winter. Phytophthora citricola and Phytophthora cactorum were detected in the Klapmuts and Klippies rivers in summer. The Berg-, Klapmuts-, Krom- and Eerste rivers tested positive for species of the genera Pythium and Fusarium. Similar organisms were detected in the Eerste river mainly during summer on the fourth sampling date, while Krom river only tested positive for Pythium during summer. The total bacterial and algal density differed significantly between the seasons and was highest in winter. This might be due to high rain water influx and efflux and/or moist and aerobic conditions and air temperature. There is an increased need for farmers to sterilize feeding water (chlorination) due to high microbial count.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Environmental Health)) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2013 / Introduction: Drinking water of poor quality can cause a variety of diseases and may even result in death. The impact of poor drinking water is a course for concern even in South Africa. Therefore, the physical, chemical and microbiological drinking water quality was investigated in the peri-urban area of Bainsvlei and the Woodlands Hills Estate in Bloemfontein, Free State. Materials and Methods: The water quality was assessed in 20 identified sampling sites for three series with ten weeks apart. These sites use treated municipal and untreated borehole water for drinking. The determinants analysed for were pH, electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, temperature, Ca, Mg, Na, F, Cl, N, SO₄,N, Free chlorine, Al, As, CN, Fe, Mn, Pb, Hg, total coliforms and E. coli. The water samples were collected and analysed on site and in the laboratory. Both the physical and chemical determinants were measured using standard methods whereas the microbiological determinants were measured using the Defined Substrate Technology (DST) method. The measurements were first compared to the SANS 241 (2011) for compliance. The ANOVA tests were used to investigate if any seasonal variations existed in the water quality as well as to compare the levels of the determinants between borehole and municipal water. In the assessment of the overall drinking water quality of different water sampling sites the water quality index (WQI) was used. Results and Discussions: Significant effects were believed to exist if the p-values of the ANOVA and Scheffe tests were at a significance level of 5% (p < 0.05). The study results revealed that of the four physical determinants that were measured turbidity exceeded the standard in many sampling sites in the three series. Of all the chemical determinants, nitrates exceeded the standard. In the same way coliforms exceeded the standard in a number of sampling sites while E. coli was found in a few sampling sites in the first series. ANOVA tests revealed that seasonal variations existed between pH, EC, temperature, cyanide and iron at a significant level of 5% (p < 0.05) while the Post-hoc Scheffe test further revealed the series in which the effect existed. Similarly, the ANOVA tests revealed that the levels of the determinants between municipal versus borehole varied in pH, EC, Ca, Mg, Na, F, Cl, N, and SO₄ at a significant level of 5% (p < 0.05). The WQI showed that in all the series when combining the good and excellent category season 2 had the highest percentage of 80%, followed by season 3 with 79% and season 1 with 70%. Only borehole sampling sites were found in the poor, very poor and unsuitable categories. Similarly all the highest WQI values were found in borehole sampling sites. Conclusion: This study revealed that the water quality is of good quality in the Bainsvlei and Woodlands Hills Estate of the Mangaung metropolitan municipality in Bloemfontein, in the Free State, South Africa. The presence of E. coli, though found in a few sampling sites and the high levels of turbidity, nitrates and coliforms are of concern to public health.