Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The following thesis looks into modeling a chilled water system equipped with variable speed drives on different piece of equipment and optimization of system setpoints to achieve energy savings. The research was done by collecting data from a case-study and developing a system of component models that could be linked to simulate the overall system operation.

Rural water systems (RWS) are commonly used to provide water to households for domestic uses (drinking, cleaning, washing, and sanitation) in developing countries. Water supply practitioners often classify these systems as single-use water systems (SUS) or multiple-use water systems (MUS). Smallholder farming communities in rural western hills of Nepal typically use such systems for both domestic and income-generating productive activities (e.g., agriculture, livestock, dairy, bio-gas, Rakshi), regardless of whether they were designed for single or multiple water uses. Therefore, this research frames both systems as providing multiple-use water services that enhance the productive activity and livelihoods of small- holders. Little is known on the factors that influence the productive activity of households in the western middle hills of Nepal and the impact these activities have on the technical performance of water systems (measured by duration of system breakdowns). This research identifies the extent of water-related productive activities in rural Nepali households supported by single-use water systems (SUS) vs. multiple-use water systems (MUS), and explores the factors that enables households to engage in high-levels of productive activity. The vast majority of households were found to engage in small-scale productive activities no matter what the rural water systems were designed to support, and more than half of them earned an income from water-based activities. Households engaged in high-levels of productive activity farm as a primary occupation, use productive technologies, are motivated to pursue productive activities, have received water-related productive activity training, and have received external support related to productive activities. A multinomial regression was used to predict the factors associated with high levels of productive activities undertaken by small farms. A hierarchical regression model was then used to examine both household- and system-level variables that contribute to the breakdown of rural water systems, focusing on the duration of breakdowns. The predictors of water system breakdowns include social factors (household involvement in decision-making during water system planning and construction and a household's sense of ownership toward the water system), technical factors (the management capacity of the water user committee and activity level of the system operator), economic factors (income earned from water-based productive activities), and geographic factors (the distance from the village to the water source). Finally, a conceptual model was developed to help identify strategies for implementing and scaling-up MUS. Scaling-up strategies for MUS begin with community participation in lo- cal government planning and budgeting. Under a new Constitution that went into effect in January 2017, newly formed local governments are to be provided with the funding and budget authority to determine local service priorities and how these services will be funded, designed, and implemented. The scaling-up of MUS would require local government officials, water system users, and private actors to develop the technical and institutional capacity needed to build and manage MUS, including the many support services needed by small- holder growers to realize its benefits. This research also examines the potential approaches that could enable subsistence farmers to become viable commercial producers. While growers are typically risk-adverse producers, this research identifies the mediating factors that could expand the long-term engagement of these producers in commercial agricultural production. These factors include adequate access to year-round irrigation, the use of improved production technologies and practices, improved access to rural markets, and improved production skills. The findings of this research will also be of value to Governmental, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and private sector actors who are looking to effectively mobilize their resources and expertise in support of smallholder farming in the hills of Nepal. / Doctor of Philosophy / A vast majority of farmers in the western middle hills of Nepal are smallholders who often use family labor and follow traditional agricultural and water use practices. They have been traditionally using rural water systems to meet their multiple water needs alongside domes- tic uses (drinking, cleaning, washing, and sanitation). There is growing interest for these systems to also be used for small-scale productive activities such as growing vegetables and livestock production. Evidence shows that these activities are an important source of income for farming families. However, little is known on the conditions that are needed to expand these activities and improve livelihoods. This research identifies the conditions under which rural water systems can become productive and technically sound, and outlines the strategies that can be deployed to scale-up productive activities. The research examines a broad range of perspectives (from rural farmers to development experts) on the limited commercialization of rural agriculture in the rural middle hills of Nepal and the potential approaches to promoting agricultural growth and commercialization among small landholders. The substance farmers were found to require both the means and motivation (i.e., extensive support services such as access to markets, input suppliers, irrigation and agricultural technologies, and production training) to become commercial farmers. Second, more than 90% of households were engaged in small-scale water-based production activities and more than half of them earned an income from these activities. The research revealed the conditions that enabled these households to engage in high levels of productive activities. Further, the factors that affect water system breakdowns were investigated. Since farmers are engaged in small-scale production, the interlinkages between productive income and system performance were examined. Finally, the research explores how multiple-use water services have the potential to be scaled-up in the middle hills of Nepal and beyond. Successful scaling-up strategies begin with community participation in local government planning and budgeting. This activity needs to be supported by substantial capacity building among government officials, water system users, and private actors on the factors needed to expand the productive use of water. Broad implementation of multiple-use water systems also requires careful documentation and dissemination of their benefits to key state and non-state actors. The results from this research can be used to identify appropriate households, communities, and water systems for programs focused on expanding water and agricultural productivity. Therefore, this research will have important implications for the Nepali government with regards to what policy, capacity development, and institutional arrangements need to be addressed to implement productive and sustainable rural water systems. This research can also be of special interest to Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and private sector actors looking to effectively mobilize their resources and expertise relating to a smallholder farming in Nepal.

Because of a continuous increase in the demand for electricity in South Africa the country’s largest electricity utility (Eskom) has been under strain to provide electricity. An expansion programme to generate more electricity has caused a continuous increase in utility costs. Steep electricity tariff increases have forced large electricity consumers, such as the mining industry, to focus on energy efficiency and demand side management (DSM). More recently, large industrial action has affected the marginality of the mining industry in such a way that mining groups were forced to cut down on production cost and even sell mining shafts. A solution has to be found to improve the marginality of these mines. DSM intervention on mine water reticulation systems has shown great promise in the past and has been implemented on many South African mines with great success. Many mines with smaller systems have not been optimised because the priority of DSM intervention was to achieve the largest saving; therefore, larger systems enjoyed priority over smaller systems. This only added to the increased financial pressure on already marginal mines. In this study the operation of a mine water reticulation system will be studied to identify the most efficient DSM interventions to implement. DSM intervention on dewatering-, refrigeration- and water distribution systems will be investigated to get a better understanding of the functions of these operations. Previous project data will be analysed to create tools that would assist in the decision-making process for DSM intervention regarding saving potential, cost benefit and cost implication. This data would ultimately assist in determining a project’s payback period that is used to prioritise DSM intervention applications. A mining group will be analysed to identify possible DSM intervention potential. The systems will be investigated and the best strategy for DSM intervention will be selected. This study will conclude that it is financially feasible to implement DSM interventions on marginal mines’ dewatering systems. / MIng (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Because of a continuous increase in the demand for electricity in South Africa the country’s largest electricity utility (Eskom) has been under strain to provide electricity. An expansion programme to generate more electricity has caused a continuous increase in utility costs. Steep electricity tariff increases have forced large electricity consumers, such as the mining industry, to focus on energy efficiency and demand side management (DSM). More recently, large industrial action has affected the marginality of the mining industry in such a way that mining groups were forced to cut down on production cost and even sell mining shafts. A solution has to be found to improve the marginality of these mines. DSM intervention on mine water reticulation systems has shown great promise in the past and has been implemented on many South African mines with great success. Many mines with smaller systems have not been optimised because the priority of DSM intervention was to achieve the largest saving; therefore, larger systems enjoyed priority over smaller systems. This only added to the increased financial pressure on already marginal mines. In this study the operation of a mine water reticulation system will be studied to identify the most efficient DSM interventions to implement. DSM intervention on dewatering-, refrigeration- and water distribution systems will be investigated to get a better understanding of the functions of these operations. Previous project data will be analysed to create tools that would assist in the decision-making process for DSM intervention regarding saving potential, cost benefit and cost implication. This data would ultimately assist in determining a project’s payback period that is used to prioritise DSM intervention applications. A mining group will be analysed to identify possible DSM intervention potential. The systems will be investigated and the best strategy for DSM intervention will be selected. This study will conclude that it is financially feasible to implement DSM interventions on marginal mines’ dewatering systems. / MIng (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Investigation and research into the Persian Gardens, leading this project into a step that these World Heritage Sites might have been known as sustainable construction, but the fact that water scarcity of their region is a serious threaten for all these amazing Gardens. Thus, enhancing and improving these gardens by merging, adding and adapting todays technologies can make them considered as constructions with water and energy conservation design. Based on nowadays world environment concerns, recognizing renewable and non-renewable sources of energies in a region or site can cause a miracle. Since, almost all Persian Gardens located in regions with arid and semi-arid climate, water poverty as a biggest issue and nonrenewable energy should be included as a problematic concern. There are many available active and passive strategies that can be applied in these heritage sites which decrease water consumption either directly or indirectly. Such as water harvesting, greywater reuse, photovoltaic panels and material changes. Water known as a vital element of each garden for irrigation purposes, but in Persian Garden water is more than a functional element. Thus, finding a way to provide and recycle water beside the underground sources is necessary. Subterranean, springs and wells are resources of water for Persian gardens which renew so slowly or non-renew these days. Being so close to a city with considerable population lunches and idea of using greywater for irrigation in these gardens. In this research, the doable options for energy conservation design for these sites will be discussed, then comparing some case studies in all over world where greywater reusing water system for irrigation is happening will be next step. In conclusion, greywater reusing system in urban scale in order to irrigate a filed or garden will be investigate on a Shazdeh Garden as a main case study of this research.

Investigations were carried out to assess biofilm formation within a model warm water distribution system (test rig) under a variety of conditions. Analysis methods included ATP-/ culture-based analysis, SEM and confocal microscopy. Molecular-based community analysis was carried out using PCR/DGGE. High pH (9.53-10.08), induced by the presence of a sacrificial anode within the water heater, had a profound inhibitive effect on the culturability of biofilm bacteria on copper (Cu) pipe within the test rig. Concurrent investigations into the effect of stagnation (varied periods of non-flushing) appeared to contradict the widely held view that stagnation is conducive to biofilm formation, with greater flushing frequencies resulting in increased biofilm. It was concluded that a higher frequency of nutrient-delivering events were largely responsible for this and that in systems where lengthier stagnation periods were employed, factors such as low oxygen and reduced nutrient levels inhibited biofilm formation on previously uncontaminated Cu pipe. Thermal purging (TP) over a 28 day period of 30 second, 12 hourly flushing at 41 °C and three-daily one minute purging with 70 °C water resulted in a 99% reduction in the culturability of biofilm bacteria on both Cu and LLDPE. However, confocal microscopical analysis of bacterial numbers indicated that 25.06% (Cu) and 21.55% (LLDPE) of the initial bacterial population remained viable. A large proportion of non-viable biofilm bacteria were also observed. Further work is therefore required in order to optimize TP within the test rig. Biofilm formation on a range of different materials; Cu, stainless steel, PEX, and EPDM, showed significantly greater biofilm development on EPDM in comparison to the other materials. Preliminary investigations of LLDPE and tap outlet fittings showed that laminar flow outlet fittings may act as reservoirs for the development and subsequent dissemination of biofilm. Molecular bacterial community structural studies of test rig biofilms clearly showed that biofilm community composition was significantly affected by both temporal and environmental factors, and varied at points within the same system. Sequencing did not provide a great insight into the composition of the bacterial communities within the test rig, and further work is required to gain a more complete picture of bacterial community diversity within the test rig. These studies show that biofilm formation within the test rig is greatly influenced by a wide variety of factors. The test rig’s unique design necessitates a cautionary approach when making comparisons with, for example, larger water distribution systems

Os condutores horizontais dos sistemas de coleta de esgotos sanitários, no Brasil e em quase todos os países do mundo, tem sido dimensionados considerando-se o escoamento em regime permanente, o que na realidade não ocorre. Sabendo-se que o escoamento no interior destes condutores acontece em regime não permanente, caracterizado pelo movimento de ondas, devido a aleatoriedade de uso dos aparelhos. Neste trabalho, apresentamos o estudo do escoamento não permanente, verificado, nos ramais e coletores dos sistemas de coleta de esgotos sanitários de edifícios residenciais. As equações diferenciais da continuidade e da quantidade de movimento, que regem este escoamento, são resolvidas pelo método das características. Apresentamos, também, os resultados e análise de várias simulações do programa de computador desenvolvido com base no método das características pelo professor Swaffield, da Universidade Heriot-Watt, Escócia. Os dados de entrada para estas simulações foram obtidos a partir de ensaios laboratoriais de algumas configurações de ambientes sanitários brasileiros, também apresentados neste trabalho. Os resultados destas simulações mostram que a consideração do escoamento em regime não permanente, possibilita a redução dos diâmetros dos ramais e coletores, e consequentemente, a redução dos custos destes sistemas. / Usually horizontal waste pipes of Building Drainage Systems, in Brazil and almost all of countries in the world, are dimensioned considering a steady flow, that does not exist. The random use of the sanitary appliances connected to the Drainage Systems of the building is the responsible for the unsteady flow. We present a study of unsteady partially filled pipeflow for drains and sewers. The differential equations of continuity and motion are solved via the method of characteristics. We present, also, the results and analysis of several simulations using a computational program developed by Prof. Swaffield-Heriot - Watt University, Scotland. The data entry were obtained through laboratorial tests which considered brazilian bathroom configurations, presented in this work. The results show us that the consideration of unsteady flow conduct to the reductions of horizontal waste pipes diameters, consequently to the reduction of the Building Drainage Systems costs.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / A presente dissertaÃÃo identifica e analisa as condiÃÃes ambientais do Complexo HÃdrico Papicu/Maceià com o ropÃsito de verificar sua situaÃÃo atual, e propor medidas alternativas para minimizar os impactos ambientais negativos detectados nessa Ãrea. A identificaÃÃo desses impactos no sistema Ãdrico em estudo, teve seu inÃcio com levantamentos cartogrÃficos e observaÃÃes de campo sendo, posteriormente, levantadas as condiÃÃes ambientais por meio da determinaÃÃo da qualidade da Ãgua e sedimento, analisando-se os parÃmetros fÃsicos e quÃmicos em amostras coletadas nas estaÃÃes chuvosa e de estiagem. A anÃlise dos sedimentos em relaÃÃo ao tamanho de grÃo, realizado pelo mÃtodo do peneiramento, apresenta uma classificaÃÃo textural que varia de areia mÃdia a fina. Os parÃmetros fÃsico-quÃmicos da Ãgua referentes a turbidez, cor e odor indicam que esses Ãndices variaram de acordo com os perÃodos chuvoso e de estiagem. Os valores de turbidez abrangeram de 3,5 uT a 39,0 uT no perÃodo de elevada luviosidade e 2,0 uT a 6,5 uT no perÃodo de estiagem. As observaÃÃes da cor indicaram Ãndices superiores a 25,0 uH. O odor apresentou caracterÃsticas de sulfÃdrico a vegetal. Os resultados da demanda bioquÃmica de oxigÃnio mostram que os valores para o perÃodo chuvoso variaram de 14,0 a 53,0 mg/L e para o de estiagem de 4,8 a 37,2 mg/L, estando acima do limite de 5,0 mg/L estabelecido pela ResoluÃÃo 20/86 do CONAMA. Esses dados indicam que esse complexo hÃdrico està recebendo efluentes de origem domÃstica. Os valores do oxigÃnio dissolvido variam de 2,6 a 4,0 mg/L, sendo que nas amostras analisadas da Lagoa do Papicu verifica-se a ausÃncia desse elemento. De acordo com a ResoluÃÃo acima referida, os valores de oxigÃnio dissolvido, em qualquer amostra deve ser superior a 2,0 mg/L, dessa forma somente o corpo hÃdrico, Lagoa do Papicu, està fora dos padrÃes estabelecidos pela resoluÃÃo. A anÃlise dos parÃmetros fÃsico-quÃmicos da Ãgua envolvendo potencial hidrogeniÃnico, alcalinidade e dureza revelam que os valores encontrados estÃo compatÃveis com as caracterÃsticas ambientais da Ãrea de estudo. Os valores de nitrito, nitrato e amÃnia nÃo estÃo, de modo geral, dentro dos padrÃes estabelecidos pela ResoluÃÃo 20/86 do CONAMA. Medidas mitigadoras e corretivas sÃo propostas para eliminar os impactos negativos configurados e preservar a qualidade ambiental do complexo hÃdrico Papicu/MaceiÃ. / The present masterâs thesis identifies and analyzes the environmental conditions of the Papicu/Maceià draining water system as an attempt to evaluate their present situation and to put forward alternative measure to lower the environmental negative impacts dedected in that region. This case study actually started with a cartographic survey and field observations which later carried on with the determination of water and sediment quality by estimating physical and chemical parameters by means of samples collected during the dry and rainy seasons. Sediments analyzed as to its grain size, through the sifting technique, went into a textural classification as median to fine sand. Physical-chemical parameters of the water in relation to turbidity, color and smell varied according to the dry and rainy seasons. Turbidity values ranged from 3,5 uT to 39,0 uT during the rainy season and 2,0 uT to 6,5 uT during the dry season, the color presented indices upwards of 25,0 uH and the smell showed sulphyde and vegetable characteristics. The values of biochemical demand for oxygen varied in the ranges of 14,0 â 53,0 mg.L-1 and 4,8 â 37,2 mg.L-1, respectively during the rainy and dry seasons, therefore well above the 5,0 mg.L-1-limit set up by CONAMAâs Act no 20/86. This is an indication that the studied water system has been receiving domestically-produced effluents. The dissolved oxygen content ranged from 2,6 mg.L-1 to 4,0 mg.L-1, but the Papicu lakelet was shown to be totally devoid of that element. Since that, according to the above-mentioned Act the oxygen content in any samples must be higher than 2,0 mg.L-1, only on the water body Papicu lakelet this parameter was found to be below that standard limit. Other water physical and chemical parameters, such as pH, alcalinity and hardness showed values which are compatible with the environmental features of the study area. Nitrite, nitrate and ammonia contents are not, in general within the standard limits of CONAMAâs Act no 20/86. Amendatory and mitigating guidelines are proposed aiming at ruling out evident negative impacts and at preserving environmentâs quality of Papicu/Maceià draining water system.

Cooling water systems are needed to dissipate heat. The mist from open system cooling towers has been implicated as a source of infections of Legionella pneumophila. As a result biocide is added to cooling water systems, but the addition of biocide worsens biofouling, scaling and corrosion. Increasing environmental pressure has resulted in a move away from biocides which are usually chlorine based chemicals, so that the use of ozone instead has recently been reported as a way of controlling microbiological growth. This study aims to compare the corrosion rates (using calculated and measured surface areas) of different metals exposed to chemically treated and ozone treated cooling water in an industrial cooling water system. The types of corrosion were also observed and recorded. The scales from different components of the cooling systems as well as scale from chemically and ozone treated D tower water were characterized qualitatively using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Thermo gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. The D tower is a cooling water circuit in which the cooling water is from the Vaal River. As expected, the stainless steel has the lowest corrosion rate of 0.000 milli inches/year followed by brass with 1.531 milli inches/year and lastly mild steel (2.098 milli inches/year). Water quality rather than the presence or absence of ozone determines the corrosion rate. This confirms the findings reported in the literature. Scale from chemically treated water contains many different compounds while scale from ozone treated contains only different polymorphs of CaCO3, which is present in the water source and magnesium calcite.

District Cooling Systems (DCS) have been widely applied in large institutions such as universities, government facilities, commercial districts, airports, etc. The hydraulic system of a large DCS can be complicated. They often stem from an original design that has had extensive additions and deletions over time. Expanding or retrofitting such a system involves large capital investment. Consideration of future expansion is often required. Therefore, a thorough study of the whole system at the planning phase is crucial. An effective hydraulic model for the existing DCS will become a powerful analysis tool for this purpose. Engineers can use the model to explore alternative system configurations to find an optimal way of accommodating the DCS hydraulic system to the planned future unit. This thesis presents the first complete procedure for the use of commercial simulation software to construct the hydraulic model for a large District Cooling System (DCS). A model for one of the largest DCS hydraulic systems in the United States has been developed based on this procedure and has been successfully utilized to assist its master planning study.