Wax has been extracted from pest formations in Europe and especially in Britain. However, little or no work have been done in the United States. The increased demand for waxes and the limited supply of domestic origin has made the study of the sources and characteristics of domestic waxes desirable. Extensive work have been done with montan wax, which is similar to peat wax, in the United States. The object of this research is to establish a suitable process for extraction of wax from pest material, and to determine the chemical and physical nature of the wax. The process may not be made economically sound, yet it may be of value to the nation's economy.

Thesis (MScEng (Process Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / Current methods for wax fractionation result in products with large polydispersity, and due to the high temperatures required, thermal degradation of the wax is often incurred. The need for an alternative process thus exists. The purpose of this project is to investigate the technical viability of supercritical fluid processing as an alternative wax fractionation technology. The main aims of this project are to select a suitable supercritical solvent, to conduct binary phase equilibrium experiments, to determine if the process is technically viable and to investigate the ability of various equations of state to correlate the phase equilibrium data. Based on limited data from the literature, propane and a propane rich LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) were selected as suitable solvents. Literature data for propane and high molecular weight alkanes is scares and incomplete, thus necessitating experimental measurements. A phase equilibrium cell was designed, constructed and commissioned. The cell was designed for pressures up to 500 bar and temperatures to 200 oC, and with the aid of an endoscope, the phase transitions were detected visually. The measurements correspond well to literature values from reliable research groups. Phase equilibrium data sets for propane with nC32, nC36, nC38, nC40, nC44, nC46, nC54 and nC60 as well as LP Gas with nC36 were measured. At temperatures just above the melting point of the alkanes, the phase transition pressures can be considered to be moderate, which will positively impact the economics of the process. The phase transition pressure increases with increasing carbon number, the relationship being found to be linear when the pressure is plotted as a function of carbon number at constant mass fractions and temperature. The increase in phase transition pressure with increasing carbon number indicates that the solvent will be able to selectively fractionate the wax. At higher temperatures the gradient of the line is larger and may thus lead to improved selectivity. The higher temperatures will also lead to better mass transfer. The linear relationship indicates that limited extrapolation to higher carbon numbers may be possible. However, this needs to be verified experimentally. The inability to measure the critical point and vapour pressure curves of the higher molecular weight normal alkanes, as well as the inability of cubic equations of state to predict liquid volumes and to capture the chain specific effects such as internal rotations, results in cubic equations of state requiring large interaction parameters to fit the data. The alternative, statistical mechanical equations of state, have difficulty in predicting the critical point of the solvent correctly and thus overpredicts the mixture critical point, yet require smaller interaction parameters to fit the data. Further work is required to improve the predictability of these non-cubic equations of state. This project has proven that wax fractionation by supercritical extraction with propane is technically feasible.

Thesis (MScEng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Supercritical extraction is being investigated as a possible alternative to the processes currently used in the fractionation of paraffinic waxes. By removing the lighter carbon fractions from the wax, the wax hardness will be improved and its melting temperature range reduced, hence improving the performance of the wax product in certain applications. In order to evaluate and operate such an extraction process optimally, it is necessary to have a thermodynamic model that accurately represents the process system. There are, however, currently no predictive models available for these systems. In order to fit present models to the systems, accurate phase equilibrium data of the supercritical solvent - n-alkane systems are needed. Unfortunately, the amount of reliable published data on these systems in the required operating range is very limited. A view cell was designed and developed with which these high pressure equilibria could be studied. The binary phase equilibria of supercritical CO2 with n-CI2, n-CI6, n-C20, n-C24, n-C28 and n-C36 and of supercritical ethane with n-CI6, n-C24 and n-C28 were measured in the temperature range 313 - 367 K. It was found that the systems with these two solvents have very different types of phase behaviour. The n-alkane solubility is much higher in ethane, but supercritical CO2 will provide a much better degree of control over the selectivity achieved in an extraction process. Of the various equations of state investigated, it was found that the Patel Teja equation of state provided the best fit of the CO2 - n-alkane systems and that the Soave-Redlich- Kwong equation fitted the ethane - n-alkane systems the best. The interaction parameters of both these equations of state display a functional relationship with temperature and nalkane acentric factor, making it possible to determine parameter values for application at other operating temperatures and with other n-alkane systems. It was found that the current equations of state were not able to represent the phase equilibria accurately over the entire range of operating conditions. The poor performance of the equations of state can be attributed to inherent flaws in the existing equations of state. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Superkritiese ekstraksie word tans ondersoek as 'n moontlike altematief vir die prosesse wat huidiglik gebruik word om paraffiese wasse te fraksioneer. Die Iigter koolstofwasse word verwyder om die washardheid te verhoog en die temperatuurgebied waaroor die was smelt te verklein. Dit verbeter dan die was se kwaliteit en werkverrigting. Modelle wat die superkritiese ekstraksie proses akkuraat kan voorstel word egter benodig om die ekstraksie proses te kan evalueer en optimaal te bedryf. Daar is tans geen modelle beskikbaar wat die proses direk kan voorstel nie. Akkurate fase-ewewigsdata word benodig om bestaande modelle aan te pas vir gebruik in hierdie sisteme. Daar is egter baie min betroubare faseewewigsdata vir die superkritiese oplosmiddel - n-alkaan sisteme beskikbaar in die literatuur. 'n Sig-sel, waarrnee hierdie hoe druk data gemeet kan word, is ontwerp en ontwikkel. Die volgende binere fase ewewigte is in die temperatuur gebied 313 - 367 K gemeet: superkritiese CO2 met n-CI2, n-CI6, n-C20, n-C24, n-C28 en n-C36, en superkritiese Etaan met n-CI6, n-C24 en n-C28. Daar is gevind dat hierdie twee superkritiese oplosmiddelsisteme verskillende tipes fase-ewewigsgedragte openbaar. Die n-alkane het 'n baie boer oplosbaarheid in Etaan, maar deur superkritiese C02 in 'n ekstraksie kolom te gebruik, sal tot beheer oor die selektiwiteit van die ekstraksieproses lei. Uit die verskillende toestandsvergelykings wat ondersoek is, is daar gevind dat die Patel- Teja vergelyking die CO2 sisteme die beste kon beskryf en dat die Soave-Redlich-Kwong vergelyking die beste vergelyking was om die Etaan sisteme mee te modelleer. Beide die toestandsvergelykings se interaksie parameters het 'n funksionele verband met temperatuur en die n-alkaan asentrise faktor getoon. Dit is dus moontlik om waardes vir die parameters vir sisteme by ander temperature en met ander n-alkaan tipes te bepaal. Daar was gevind dat die bestaande toestandsvergelykings nie die die fase-ewewigte oor die hele eksperimenele gebied akkuraat kon voorstel nie. Dit kan toegeskryf word aan foute wat inherent is aan die vergelykings.

During the "Green Sahara" period (11,000 to 5000 years before the present), the Sahara desert received high amounts of rainfall, supporting diverse vegetation, permanent lakes, and human populations. Our knowledge of rainfall rates and the spatiotemporal extent of wet conditions has suffered from a lack of continuous sedimentary records. We present a quantitative reconstruction of western Saharan precipitation derived from leaf wax isotopes in marine sediments. Our data indicate that the Green Sahara extended to 31 degrees N and likely ended abruptly. We find evidence for a prolonged "pause" in Green Sahara conditions 8000 years ago, coincident with a temporary abandonment of occupational sites by Neolithic humans. The rainfall rates inferred from our data are best explained by strong vegetation and dust feedbacks; without these mechanisms, climate models systematically fail to reproduce the Green Sahara. This study suggests that accurate simulations of future climate change in the Sahara and Sahel will require improvements in our ability to simulate vegetation and dust feedbacks.

La cuticule, une matrice lipidique extracellulaire constituée de cires et d’un squelette de cutine, est la barrière de défense la plus externe des plantes face à leur environnement. Elle intervient dans de nombreuses propriétés agronomiques comme la conservation post récolte, les propriétés mécaniques ou bien l’aspect du fruit, dont la brillance. Afin d’isoler des mutants de cuticule, le criblage d’une collection de mutants EMS de tomate a été entrepris, en se basant sur la brillance des fruits, conduisant à la sélection de 24 mutants. Chez ceux-ci, des analyses biochimiques ont montré de fortes variations de charge et de composition de la cuticule, notamment chez les mutants de cutine. La caractérisation de 4 mutants remarquables a été entreprise afin d’identifier les mutations responsables des phénotypes de brillance. Le mutant le plus affecté, présentant une charge en cutine réduite de 85% par rapport au type sauvage, a révélé une mutation du gène SlGDSL2 codant pour une acylhydrolase à motif GDSL, responsable de la polymérisation de la cutine. Afin d’étudier la formation et la régulation de la cutine, la suite du travail a consisté à obtenir et à caractériser des simples et des doubles mutants affectés dans la synthèse des monomères de cutine, le transport apoplastique et la polymérisation de la cutine. / The cuticle, an extracellular lipid matrix consisting of waxes and of a cutin skeleton is the outermost plants protection barrier against their environment. The cuticle is involved in many agronomic traits such as post-harvest storage, biomechanical or fruit appearance properties like surface brightness. In order to isolate cuticle mutants, the screening of an EMS tomato mutants collection has been undertaken, based on fruit brightness, leading to the selection of 24 mutants. Biochemical analyzes have shown wide variations in cuticle loads and compositions, especially in cutin mutants. The characterization of 4 remarkable mutants was undertaken to identify the mutations responsible for brightness phenotypes. The most affected mutant shows a cutin load reduced by 85% compared to the wild type, and is due to a mutation in the SlGDSL2 gene, encoding a GDSL-motive acylhydrolase enzyme, responsible for the cutin polymerization. In order to further study the cutin formation and regulation, the next work was to obtain and characterize single and double mutants affected in cutin monomer synthesis, apoplastic transport and cutin polymerization.

As poliolefinas, em especial os polietilenos (PE) são materiais poliméricos muito utilizados para a produção de filmes tubulares, sendo um dos materiais mais amplamente empregado na indústria de embalagens flexíveis. Dentre os diversos PE industriais, o polietileno de baixa densidade (PEBD) apresenta propriedades reológicas únicas em comparação aos PE lineares e os de alta densidade. A alta viscosidade e as numerosas ramificações longas encontradas neste polímero influenciam na redução da produtividade quando processados. Aditivos das mais variadas composições são adicionados ao polietileno durante o processo de extrusão tubular a fim de melhorar suas propriedades. Um dos aditivos mais empregados para facilitar o fluxo do fundido para processamento de filmes são as ceras sintéticas, sendo a mais usada a de polietileno oxidado (CP). Na procura de alternativas de cera de fonte orgânica e/ou de fonte natural, o objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a influência do tipo e teor de cera na processabilidade e propriedades finais de filmes tubulares de PEBD. Foram usados 3 tipos de ceras: CP (cera de polietileno), a carnaúba (CC) e o monoestearato de glicerol (CM), sendo processadas 4 formulações de PEBD/cera nas proporções mássicas de 99,5/0,5; 99/1; 98/2 e 96/4 m/m com os três tipos de cera e comparados com o PEBD sem cera. Os filmes foram caracterizados através de ensaios físicos, ópticos, químicos, térmicos, reológicos e mecânicos. Propriedades ópticas como o brilho e opacidade foram alteradas pela adição das ceras pois um aumento na concentração das ceras aumenta o grau de cristalinidade dos filmes. A cera de carnaúba apresentou amarelamento nos filmes produzidos com maiores concentrações. Resultados deste estudo mostraram que o uso da cera sintética, CP e da natural de carnaúba, aumentam a produtividade do filme tubular de PEBD, sendo o teor ótimo de 1% de cera, sem ter influência significativa na espessura e largura do filme tubular. O uso de agentes de fluxo alternativos de natureza orgânica é viável pois obtiveram resultados similares e superiores ao padrão nos filmes testados. / Polyolefins, especially polyethylenes (PE) are widely used polymeric materials for the production of tubular films, being one of the most widely used materials in the flexible packaging industry. Among the various industrial PE, low density polyethylene (LDPE) has unique rheological properties compared to linear and high density PE. The high viscosity and the numerous long branches found in this polymer influence the reduction of productivity when processed. Additives of the most varied compositions are added to the polyethylene during the tubular extrusion process in order to improve their properties. One of the most used additives to facilitate the flux of melt for film processing is synthetic waxes, the most used being oxidized polyethylene (CP). In the search for organic and / or natural source wax alternatives, the objective of this work is to evaluate the influence of the type and content of wax on the processability and final properties of tubular films of LDPE. Three types of waxes were used: CP (polyethylene wax), carnauba (CC) and glycerol monostearate (CM), and 4 formulations of LDPE / wax were processed in mass proportions of 99.5 / 0.5; 99/1; 98/2 and 96/4 m / m with the three types of wax and compared with LDPE without wax. The films were characterized by physical, optical, chemical, thermal, rheological and mechanical tests. Optical properties such as brightness and opacity are altered by the addition of waxes as an increase in the concentration of the waxes increases the degree of crystallinity of the films. Carnauba wax shows a yellowing in the films produced with higher concentrations. Results of this study showed that the use of synthetic wax, CP and natural carnauba, increase the productivity of the tubular film of LDPE, being the optimal content of 1% of wax, without having a significant influence on the thickness and width of the tubular film. The use of alternative flow agents of organic nature is feasible because they obtained similar and superior results to the standard in the films tested.

L’agriculture moderne utilise depuis plus de cinquante ans de nombreux produits phytosanitaires de traitement dans le but d’assurer les meilleurs rendements et de limiter les pathogènes néfastes pour la santé humaine ou animale. Jusqu’à peu, la quantité de résidus phytosanitaires présents dans les denrées alimentaires (fruits, légumes, céréales, plantes fourragères, produits transformés…) était certes contrôlée mais en règle générale, ne soulevait que très peu d’interrogation en terme de conséquences à plus ou moins long terme. A l’heure actuelle, des exigences de plus en plus drastiques apparaissent et se généralisent. Les produits issus des industries agricole et agroalimentaire doivent répondre à des normes de plus en plus strictes en terme de résidus pour rester compétitives. En particulier, dans le cas des pommes, dont le nombre de traitements par saison est l’un des plus élevé en France, les exigences tendent vers le zéro résidu détectable. La stratégie de cette étude repose, dans un premier temps, sur la compréhension des phénomènes de transfert à la surface du fruit. Une caractérisation physico-chimique de l’épiderme de différentes variétés de pommes a conduit à l’identification des structures impliquées dans l’interaction molécule bioactivematrice biopolymérique. Le fludioxonil a été choisi comme molécule modèle en raison de sa fréquence d’utilisation comme fongicide de conservation et de sa composition atomique (présence de fluors). Les épidermes de pommes Fuji ont servi de matrice modèle. Dans un second temps, un procédé de traitement par voie chimique des pommes a été mis au point et développé pour extraire les résidus de 12 molécules de phytosanitaires parmi les plus couramment utilisées dans les vergers de pommiers du Midi-Pyrénées. Trois variétés de pommes populaires en France ont été sélectionnées pour leurs différentes périodes de récolte correspondant à des risques de contamination variables. Les résultats ont conduit à la proposition d’un schéma de désorption des molécules bioactives dans la matrice biopolymérique, basé sur les théories de la solubilité de Hildebrandt et de Hansen. En complément, le développement d’une méthode analytique de quantification par chromatographie en phase gazeuse couplée à la spectrométrie de masse trappe d’ions (GC/MS2) des molécules phytosanitaires dans la matrice épidermique des pommes a mis en évidence que : 1- l’augmentation de la concentration des analytes d’intérêt au-dessus des limites de détection de la technique analytique appliquée favorisait la quantification des très faibles traces, voire des ultratraces ; 2- les analytes d’intérêt subissaient en parallèle des effets matrice négatifs. Une forte interaction entre certains analytes de la matrice et les phytosanitaires a été démontrée et une méthode de purification basée sur un couplage chromatographie sur couche mince haute performance avec la GC/MS2 (CCMHP/GC/MS2) a été proposée afin de minimiser les effets matrice négatifs dans / For more than fifty years, the modern agriculture uses lots of products for crop protection in order to ensure optimum yields and to limit pathogens harmful for human or animal health. Until recently, the levels of pesticides in foodstuffs (fruits, vegetables, cereals, forage crops, processed food…) were controlled but usually not problematic regarding the effects over time. Nowadays, more and more drastic requirements are appearing and becoming widespread. The products from farming and food industries must satisfy stricter and stricter standards in terms of residues for maintaining competitiveness. Particularly, for apples, whose treatments per season are among the highest in France, requirements tend to the zero detectable residue. The strategy of this work deals with, on one hand, the understanding of the transfert stages involved at the outer surface of the fruit. A physicochemical characterizations of epiderms of different apples led to the identification of the structures involved in the relationship between bioactive molecule and biopolymeric matrix. Fludioxonil was chosen for modelization for its frequency of use and for its atomic composition (fluorine). The epiderms of Fuji apples were selected as the matrix-model. On the other hand, a chemically treatment process of apples was studied and developed to release the residues of 12 pesticides among the most currently used in apple orchards of Midi-Pyrenees. Three varieties of apples among the most popular in France were selected for their different periods of harvest corresponding to variable pests risks. The results led to a possible scheme of desorption of bioactive molecules in the biopolymeric matrix, based on the theory of solubility developed by Hildebrandt and Hansen. In addition, the development of an analytical mehtod of quantitation of pesticides in the epidermal matrix of apples by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry ion trap (GC/MS2) highlighted that : 1- the increase of the concentrations of the analytes of interest over the limits of detection of the applied analytical method promoted the quantitation of very low traces, even ultratraces ; 2- the analytes of interest concurrently underwent negative matrix effects. A strong interaction between some matrix analytes with pesticides was demonstrated and a mehtod of cleanup based on the hyphenation of high performance thin layer chromatography with GC/MS2 (HPTLC/GC/MS2) was suggested to minimize the negative matrix effects in that kind of concentrated matrix extracts.

Highly fluorinated organic compounds are emerging environmental contaminants of concern, due to their persistence, ubiquitous distribution, bioaccumulation potential and toxicity. Ski waxes are sources of highly fluorinated chemicals to the environment that have not been investigated so far. Some contain fluorinated additives such as semifluorinated n-alkanes (SFAs). This thesis investigated the fate of SFAs after abrasion onto snow through skiing activities. Furthermore, perfluorinated alkyl acids (PFAAs) were found to be present in fluorinated ski waxes. A lot of attention has been paid to elucidating the environmental fate of PFAAs during the past decade. However, nothing was known so far about their release from melting snow packs. Analytical methods for quantification of SFAs in different environmental matrices were developed. The methods were used to investigate the fate of SFAs during snow melt and to study their occurrence in ski areas. Laboratory snow melt experiments and model-based fate simulations suggested that SFAs will sorb to the snow grain surface and particles in the bulk snow and, after snowmelt, will end up on the underlying (soil) surface. SFAs were detected and quantified for the first time in snow and soil samples taken from a ski area in Sweden. Comparison of concentrations in snow and soil did not give any evidence for long-term accumulation of SFAs in surface soil, but suggested volatilization of shorter chain homologues during snow melt. Such a volatilization could also explain an observed SFA pattern difference between snow and soil samples. Laboratory scale snow melt experiments were also used to investigate the behavior of PFAAs during snowmelt. PFAAs were released with the melt water from the snow pack in pulses. The pulses occurred early, late or with a so far unknown peak elution in the middle of the snowmelt, depending on the hydrophobicity of the PFAAs. These peak releases were further influenced by the age of the snow pack and thus the snow surface area and to a lesser extent by pH and ion concentrations.

On the basis of the well-known preservative properties of Sphagnum moss, a potential opportunity to use moss polysaccharides (Sphagnan) in art conservation was tested. Polysaccharides were extracted from the moss (S. palustre spp.) in the amount of 4.1% of the Sphagnum plant dry weight. All lignocelluloses were removed from this extract as a result of the treatment of the moss cellulose with sodium chlorite. The extracted polysaccharide possessed a strong acidic reaction (pH 2.8) and was soluble in water and organic solvents. The extract was tested on laboratory bacterial cultures by the disk-diffusion method. The antibacterial effect was demonstrated for E. coli and P. aeruginosa (both gram-negative) while Staphylococcus aurelus (gram-positive) was shown to be insensitive to Sphagnum polysaccharides. The antifungal effect of Sphagnum extract was tested by the disk-diffusion method on the spores of seventeen fungal species. These fungi were isolated from ethnographic museum objects and from archaeological objects excavated in the Arctic. Twelve of these isolates appeared susceptible to the extract. The inhibiting effect of the extract was also tested by the modified broth-dilution method on the most typical isolate (Aspergillus spp.). In this experiment, in one ml of the nutritious broth, 40µl of 3% solution of polysaccharides in water killed 10,000 fungal spores in 6 hours. The inhibiting effect was not connected to the acidity or osmotic effect of Sphagnum polysaccharides. As an example of the application of Sphagnum polysaccharides in art conservation, they were added as preservative agents to conservation waxes. After three weeks of exposure of microcrystalline wax to test fungi (Aspergillus spp.), 44% of wax was consumed. When, however, ~ 0.1% (w/w) of Sphagnum extract was mixed with wax, the weight loss of wax was only 4% in the same time interval. On the basis of this study it was concluded that Sphagnum moss and Sphagnum products can be recommended for use in art conservation as antifungal agents. / Thesis (Master, Art Conservation) -- Queen's University, 2010-01-14 15:55:23.779

Une triple attente socio-économique dans les domaines du développement durable (réduction des matières synthétiques non biodégradables), des solutions naturelles de conservation des aliments (tendance du « clean label » par la protection des denrées par des emballages actifs et intelligents évitant des additifs à outrance dans les aliments) et de la sécurité alimentaire (sécurité microbiologique et traçabilité) est à l’origine du développement de nouveaux matériaux à la fois biodégradables, comestibles et fonctionnalisés. Cette recherche commencée quelques décennies plus tôt est freinée par un mode de production difficilement industrialisable (voie solvant). Cependant, depuis quelques années des procédés applicables à l’échelle industrielle sont développées (voie fondue/extrusion). Dans le travail présenté ici, la technologie d’extrusion bivis a été appliquée avec succès sur différentes matières premières protéiques : la caséine acide, la caséine présure et le caséinate de sodium. Extraites toutes trois du lait de vache, ces caséines montrent des caractéristiques différentes qui affectent les propriétés du matériau (mécaniques, sensibilité aux molécules d’eau). La fonctionnalisation de la matrice par l’ajout d’acides organiques offre un potentiel antimicrobien intéressant contre Escherichia coli. Une complexation supplémentaire du matériau par incorporation de molécules hydrophobes telles que des cires (cires d’abeille, de candelilla et de carnauba) permet d’élargir une fois de plus l’éventail des propriétés disponibles pour ces matériaux composites, comme l’amélioration de la propriété barrière à la vapeur d’eau apportée par la cire d’abeille. La sensibilité aux molécules d’eau de ce type de matériau étant un critère à considérer à chaque étape de développement et de compréhension des interactions inter-ingrédients (protéine, plastifiant, cires, composés antimicrobiens). Ce manuscrit expose le potentiel de développement de matériaux à base de caséine, biodégradables, comestibles et antimicrobiens, qu’il s’agit d’appliquer en emballage agroalimentaire tout comme dans bien d’autres secteurs / Development of innovative biodegradable, edible and functionalized material comes from a triple socio-economic expectation in the field of sustainable development (decrease in synthetic non-biodegradable polymers), of natural solutions for food preservation (trend of “clean label” by food protection through active and smart packaging to avoid over-use of food additives) and of food safety (microbiological safety and traceability). Development in that field, started few decades ago is slowed down by production process (wet process), which is not an easy scale up process. However, a few years ago industrial process technique as extrusion started developing. In the present work, the twin-screw extrusion process was successfully applied to produce polymer based on protein raw material: acid casein, rennet casein and sodium caseinate. Extracted from caw milk, these three caseins own different characteristics, which affect material properties (mechanical, water sensitive properties). Matrix functionalization through organic acid addition bring an interesting antimicrobial response against Escherichia coli. Blending hydrophobic molecules as waxes (beeswax, candelilla wax and carnauba wax) creates a complex composite material which increases the range of available properties as improved water vapor barrier allowed by beeswax addition. Water sensitive properties are key points to consider at each step of material development and to understand relationships between the different ingredients (protein, plasticizer, waxes, antimicrobial agents). This manuscript shows the feasibility in the development of casein based material as biodegradable, edible and antimicrobial material, to apply and use in the food packaging industry or other industries