No description available.

A wax distribution quantification procedure using digital image analysis and fluorescence microscopy techniques was developed. The procedure was evaluated by investigating the effect that variable application rates have on wax distribution. The effect of emulsion type and application on |B strength, thickness swell, water absorption, and linear expansion of flakeboard panels were also investigated. Tests revealed that increasing the wax emulsion flow rate and application pressure had a significant affect on wax coverage. A lower amount of flake surface area was covered when the flow rate and air pressure was increased. It was also found that the presence of resin on the flakes affected wax coverage. Resin presence generally increased the wax coverage variability. The application flow rate and pressure also seemed to affect the interaction present between the resin and wax spots. The fractional coverage area of spot size classes was also significantly affected by the emulsion's application parameters. Increasing the flow rate and air pressure was shown to create more variable wax spot distributions. The presence of resin spots on the flakes was also shown to significantly affect the spot size distribution. Changes in the emulsion flow rate and application air pressure also appeared to have a significant affect on wax spot distribution. The type of wax emulsion used, as well as increased application flow rate and pressure, was shown to significantly affect both 2 hour and 24 hour water absorption (by weight). It was found that using a soap based emulsion improved the water absorption characteristics, and that increasing the emulsion's application flow rate and air pressure adversely affected the water absorption. Differences in IB strength and 24 hour thickness swell were also seen between the panels made using increased flow rate and pressure and the panels produced with standard parameters. However, due to possible influence of press malfunctions on the boards performance, conclusions about the effect of increased parameters can not be clearly drawn. No significant difference in linear expansion was seen for any of the samples tested. / Master of Science

A própolis é uma substância resinosa, formada por produtos coletados de plantas e substâncias produzidas pelas abelhas, cuja textura e coloração varia dependendo da fonte de coleta e respectiva fenologia. É utilizada na colméia para diversas finalidades: vedar aberturas, forrar a entrada da colméia e envolver invasores. O interesse por própolis tem crescido muito, devido à comprovação experimental de suas atividades biológicas, tais como citotóxica, anti-herpes, anti-HIV, antitumoral, antimicrobiana e antioxidante. A composição química da própolis é complexa, compreendendo, além de cera de abelha, flavonóides, ácidos fenólicos, terpenóides, substâncias voláteis, entre outros constituintes. A composição depende de vários fatores, principalmente da região onde é produzida. Neste trabalho, estabeleceu-se o perfil químico de amostras de própolis brasileiras, baseando-se nos teores de substâncias fenólicas totais, flavonóides totais e ceras de amostras de distintas regiões do território brasileiro: Ponta Grossa (PR), Bauru e Pariquera-Açu (SP), Lavras e Mira Bela (MG), Pirenópolis (GO), Cabo Verde (BA), Maceió (AL) e Picos (PI). Os teores de fenóis totais foram determinados pelo no método de Folin Ciocalteau, utilizando-se ácido p-cumárico como referência. A dosagem de flavonóides totais baseou-se em dois métodos espectrofotométricos complementares: cloreto de alumínio e dinitrofenil-hidrazina, usando-se quercetina e pinocembrina, respectivamente, como referências. Os teores de ceras foram obtidos por extração com clorofórmio, tratamento com metanol e pesagem do resíduo. Os resultados demonstraram grande diversidade química entre as amostras estudadas, inclusive entre amostras do mesmo estado. Tal é o caso das amostras de Lavras e Mira Bela, e Bauru e Pariquera-Açu. Os teores de fenóis totais variaram de 0,91% a 41,63%, sendo o maior percentual referente à amostra de própolis vermelha (Maceió). Esses resultados são superiores aos obtidos com própolis do Uruguai, Argentina, Paraguai, China e países da Europa, e também de própolis verde brasileira. Os valores obtidos para flavonóides totais variaram entre 0,31% e 4,43%, valores próximos aos encontrados por outros pesquisadores de própolis brasileiras, porém inferiores aos relatados para própolis européia, que variam entre 1,1% e 22,3%. Os teores de ceras determinados, variando entre 5,37% e 45,88%, são superiores aos relatados para outras amostras de própolis brasileiras, sendo comparáveis apenas às própolis chinesas, cujo teor é de aproximadamente 30%. Com base nos teores dosados, foi feita análise de componentes principais (PCA). As amostras de Maceió, Cabo Verde, Pirenópolis e Bauru emergiram isoladamente das demais. Pariquera-Açu e Mira Bela sobressaíram-se no outro extremo do gráfico, devido a baixos teores de compostos fenólicos e altos índices de ceras. As amostras de Picos, Lavras e Ponta Grossa agruparam-se em função de teores de fenóis totais expressivos e de ceras relativamente altos. Foram analisadas as frações clorofórmicas e metanólicas de todas as amostras por HPLC-MS e CG-EM. Essas análises revelaram que as amostras de Bauru, Lavras e Cabo Verde têm composição típica de própolis verde, com muitos fenilpropanóides prenilados e derivados de ácido cafeoilquínico. A composição da própolis de Maceió diferiu muito das demais, incluindo a presença de chalconas. Tais substâncias nunca foram relatadas em própolis anteriormente. As própolis de Pirenópolis e Picos assemelham-se pela presença de muitos flavonóides glicosilados, substâncias nunca reportadas anteriormente para própolis. As amostras de Ponta Grossa, Pariquera-Açu e Mira Bela têm perfil químico intermediário entre a própolis verde e própolis com flavonóides glicosilados. Essas afinidades químicas ficaram bem evidenciadas por meio de análise de agrupamento, usando-se as substâncias identificadas como variáveis e o método de agrupamento UPGMA. Os resultados evidenciam que os tipos de própolis brasileiras não se restringem a doze, como proposto anteriormente. As análises químicas revelaram três tipos adicionais: Maceió, Pirenópolis / Picos e Ponta Grossa / Pariquera-Açu / Mira Bela. A enorme diversidade da composição da própolis produzida no Brasil realça a importância da realização de estudos para a determinação de perfis químicos e fontes botânicas de resinas. Esses conhecimentos são essenciais para o uso adequado de produtos da própolis no mercado nacional e internacional. / Propolis is a resinous substance comprising exsudates collected from plants and substances produced by bees, with texture and colour varying according to the plant source of resin and respective phenology. This product is used in the hive with various purposes: to seal holes and line the hive entrance and to embalm the bodies of killed invaders. The interest in propolis has increased recently, mainly due to experimental evidences of its biological activities, such as cytotoxic, anti-herpes, anti-HIV, antitumoral, anti-microbial and antioxidant. The chemical composition of propolis is complex, including, in addition to beeswax, flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenoids and volatile substances, among other constituents. The composition depends on many factors, mainly the region, where it was produced. In the present work the chemical profile of the Brazilian propolis was established based on the content of total phenolic substances, total flavonoids and waxes of samples from distinct regions of the Brazilian territory: Ponta Grossa (PR), Bauru and Pariquera-Açu (SP), Lavras and Mira Bela (MG), Pirenópolis (GO), Cabo Verde (BA), Maceio (AL) and Picos (PI). The contents of total phenols were obtained by the Folin-Ciocalteau method, using p-coumaric acid as reference. Determination of total flavonoids was based on two spectrophotometric complementary methods: alluminum chloride and dinitrophenyl-hydrazine, using quercetin and pinocembrin, respectively, as references. Determination of wax contents was carried out by extraction with chloroform, treatment with methanol and weight of the residue. The results revealed a wide chemical variety among the samples, even between samples from the same state, as are the cases of samples from Lavras and Mira Bela and from Bauru and Pariquera-Açu. Total phenol contents varied in the range 0,91%-41,63%, highest figures corresponding to red propolis from Maceio. The contents determined are higher than those obtained with propolis from Uruguai, Argentina, Paraguai, China and Europe, and also with Brazilian green propolis. Regarding values of total flavonoids, they ranged from 0,31% to 4,43%, similar to results reported by other researchers with Brazilian propolis, but lower than contents of European propolis, which has varied in the range 1,1%-22,3%. Wax contents varied from 5,37% to 45,88%, such figures being higher than values of Brazilian propolis reported by other authors, but comparable with Chinese propolis, which content is close to 30%. Based on the results obtained a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was carried out. Samples from Maceio, Cabo Verde, Pirenópolis and Bauru emerged isolated. Pariquera-Açu and Mira Bela standed out as a group in the other end of the graphic, due to low contents of phenolic compounds and high levels of waxes. The samples from Picos, Lavras and Ponta Grossa comprised another group, based on salient contents of total phenols and relatively high contents of waxes. Chloroform and methanolic fractions from each sample were analyzed by HPLC-MS and GC-MS. These analyses showed that samples from Bauru, Lavras and Cabo Verde have composition typical of green propolis, with many prenylated phenylpropanoids and cafeoylquinic acid derivatives. The composition of the Maceio propolis differed very much, standing out by having exclusive constituents, such as chalcones, a class of flavonoids never reported for propolis. Propolis from Pirenopolis and Picos are alike due to many glycosilated flavonoids, substances also never reported for propolis. Samples from Ponta Grossa, Pariquera-Açu and Mira Bela have chemical profiles intermediate between green propolis and those with glycosilated flavonoids. The commented chemical affinities were evident in clustering analysis carried out with the identified substances as variables and UPGMA method. These results constitute evidence that Brazilian propolis cannot be grouped in only twelve types, as has been suggested. The present chemical analyses revealed three additional types: Maceió, Pirenópolis/Picos e Ponta Grossa/Pariquera-Açu/Mira Bela. The huge diversity of the composition of propolis produced in Brazil highlight the importance of studies for determination of chemical profiles and resin botanical sources. Such findings are essential for adequate use of propolis products both in the national and international market.

Orientador: Daniel Barrera Arellano / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-05T16:00:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rozario_ClaudiaHelenaRibeirodo_M.pdf: 746633 bytes, checksum: 09b06bd81821694a0159e905ae2e7722 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / Resumo: A cera de cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum officinarum), extraída da torta de filtração, um subproduto da indústria sucro-alcooleira, tem sido uma matéria de interesse não somente pela sua aplicação industrial como alternativa para as ceras de carnaúba, abelha e sintéticas, mas também pela sua composição química. A cera de cana-deaçúcar é uma fonte natural de álcoois alifáticos primários de cadeia longa, com 24 a 34 átomos de carbono, com predominância do octacosanol. Essa mistura de álcoois de alto peso molecular, denominada ¿policosanol¿, tem chamado a atenção pelas suas propriedades farmacológicas, sendo comercializada industrialmente como componente ativo em diversas formulações com efeitos anti-plaquetários, anti-trombóticos e redutores de colesterol. Neste trabalho, foram estudadas as etapas envolvidas no processo de obtenção de uma mistura de álcoois a partir de cera de cana-de-açúcar, compostas de (1) purificação da cera bruta de cana-de-açúcar pelo método do álcool a quente; (2) saponificação da cera purificada com NaOH, na presença de etanol como solvente; (3) separação da mistura de álcoois da cera saponificada, utilizando solução salina e etanol, para obtenção do produto denominado ¿policosanol 50¿ e, (4) purificação com acetona do produto obtido em (3), para obtenção do produto denominado ¿policosanol 90¿. Como a reação de saponificação pode interferir no rendimento do composto de interesse, foram aplicadas técnicas de planejamento experimental nesta etapa e, de acordo com os resultados obtidos, novos testes foram realizados para se determinar as condições mais favoráveis para a reação. A proporção cera:solução de NaOH foi mantida em 1:1 (p:v) e, com este parâmetro fixado, as condições determinadas para a reação de saponificação foram: concentração da solução alcoólica de NaOH de 2M, temperatura de 80ºC e tempo de 15 minutos. Nestas condições, o produto denominado ¿policosanol 50¿ apresentou um rendimento de 55% e uma pureza em álcoois de 50% e o produto denominado ¿policosanol 90¿ apresentou um rendimento de 25,7% e uma pureza em álcoois de 92,3% / Abstract: Sugarcane wax (Saccharum officinarum), extracted from filter cake, a by-product of the sugar and alcohol industry, has been a material of interest, not only for its industrial application, as an alternative to ¿carnaúba¿ wax, bees wax and synthetic waxes, but also for its chemical composition. Sugarcane wax is a natural source of long-chain primary aliphatic alcohols, with 24 to 34 carbon atoms, with a predominance of octacosanol. This mixture of high molecular weight alcohols called policosanol, has been investigated due to its pharmacological properties, being industrially commercialized as an active component in various formulations, with anti-platelet, anti-trombotic and cholesterolreducing effects. In this work, the stages involved in the process of obtaining a mixture of alcohols from sugarcane wax, composed of (1) purification of the raw sugarcane wax by the hot alcohol method; (2) saponification of the purified wax with NaOH in the presence of ethanol as solvent; (3) separation of the mixture of alcohols in the saponified wax using a salt solution and ethanol to obtain the product called ¿policosanol 50¿; and, (4) purification with acetone of the product obtained in (3), to obtain the product called ¿policosanol 90¿, were studied. As the saponification reaction can interfere in the yield of the composite of interest, experimental planning techniques were applied in this stage and, in accordance with the results obtained, new tests were conducted to determine the most favorable reaction conditions. The proportion wax:NaOH solution was maintained at 1:1 (w:v) and, with this parameter fixed, the conditions for the saponification reaction were: concentration of the NaOH alcoholic solution of 2M, temperature of 80ºC and time of 15 minutes. Under these conditions, the product denominated ¿policosanol 50¿ presented a yield of 55% and a purity in alcohols of 50%, and the product called ¿policosanol 90¿ presented a yield of 25.7% and a purity in alcohols of 92.3% / Mestrado / Mestre em Tecnologia de Alimentos

Les alcanes sont les composés principaux des cires cuticulaires et de ce fait, jouent un rôle prépondérant dans l’organisation et dans les fonctions protectrices de la cuticule, la couche lipidique recouvrant les parties aériennes des plantes. La caractérisation du mutant cer1 d’Arabidopsis, présentant une réduction drastique des alcanes et des molécules qui en dérivent, a permis de suggérer l’implication de la protéine CER1 dans la formation de ces composés. Au cours de notre étude, la génération de plantes transgéniques exprimant CER1 de manière ectopique a permis de démontrer une corrélation positive entre le niveau d’expression du gène et la quantité d’alcanes présents à la surface des plantes indiquant le rôle crucial de CER1 dans la synthèse de ces molécules. Le jeu de plantes transgéniques obtenues a également permis d’explorer la fonction de CER1 et le rôle des alcanes au cours du développement ainsi que dans la réponse des plantes aux contraintes de l’environnement, révélant leur implication prépondérante pour la résistance au stress hydrique. D’autre part l’absence de complémentation fonctionnelle du mutant cer1 par des formes de CER1 mutées au niveau des clusters d’histidines a montré qu’ils constituent, au moins en partie, le site catalytique de l’enzyme. Afin de caractériser la fonction biochimique de CER1, la recherche de ses partenaires métaboliques a été menée par une approche de double hybride split-ubiquitine chez la levure. Cette étude a révélé l’interaction physique de CER1 avec CER3, une protéine de fonction inconnue impliquée dans le métabolisme des cires. La co-expression des deux protéines dans des cellules de levures manipulées pour produire des acyl-CoAs à très longues chaînes a abouti à la première reconstitution de la voie de synthèse des alcanes à très longues chaînes décrite à ce jour, établissant que CER1 et CER3 forment un complexe enzymatique capable de produire des alcanes à partir des acyl-CoAs. D’autre part, l’étude des autres partenaires protéiques de CER1 a permis de commencer à déchiffrer les mécanismes enzymatiques associés au complexe CER1/CER3 ainsi que de mettre en évidence de nouveaux acteurs potentiels du métabolisme et du transport des cires. / Protective functions of the cuticle, the hydrophobic layer covering aerial parts of terrestrial plants. The characterisation of the Arabidopsis cer1 mutant, showing a dramatic decrease of alkanes and its derivates, suggested that CER1 is involved in alkane formation. In our study, the generation of transgenic plants misexpressing CER1 showed a positive correlation between the gene expression level and the alkane amount, strongly sustaining the presumed role of CER1 as an alkane-forming component. Further analyses of the set of transgenic plants provided information about CER1 and alkanes roles during plant development as well as plant/environment interactions, demonstrating their crucial involvement in the resistance to hydric stress. Moreover, the inability of histidines mutated form of CER1 to functionally complement the cer1 mutant indicated that histidine-clusters are part of the catalytic site of this enzyme. To characterize the biochemical function of CER1, a search for its metabolic protein partners was conducted in the yeast two-hybrid split-ubiquitin system for membrane proteins. This approach revealed a physical interaction of CER1 with CER3, a protein of unknown function involved in wax metabolism. Co-expression of the two proteins in yeast cells manipulated to produce very long chain (VLC) acyl-CoAs allows the first reconstitution of the VLC-alkane synthesis pathway described so far, demonstrating that CER1 and CER3 form an enzymatic complex catalyzing the conversion of VLC-acyl-CoAs to VLC-alkanes. In addition, the characterisation of CER1 partners began to address the enzymatic mechanisms associated to the CER1/CER3 complex activity and revealed new putative actors of wax synthesis and transport.

A própolis é uma substância resinosa, formada por produtos coletados de plantas e substâncias produzidas pelas abelhas, cuja textura e coloração varia dependendo da fonte de coleta e respectiva fenologia. É utilizada na colméia para diversas finalidades: vedar aberturas, forrar a entrada da colméia e envolver invasores. O interesse por própolis tem crescido muito, devido à comprovação experimental de suas atividades biológicas, tais como citotóxica, anti-herpes, anti-HIV, antitumoral, antimicrobiana e antioxidante. A composição química da própolis é complexa, compreendendo, além de cera de abelha, flavonóides, ácidos fenólicos, terpenóides, substâncias voláteis, entre outros constituintes. A composição depende de vários fatores, principalmente da região onde é produzida. Neste trabalho, estabeleceu-se o perfil químico de amostras de própolis brasileiras, baseando-se nos teores de substâncias fenólicas totais, flavonóides totais e ceras de amostras de distintas regiões do território brasileiro: Ponta Grossa (PR), Bauru e Pariquera-Açu (SP), Lavras e Mira Bela (MG), Pirenópolis (GO), Cabo Verde (BA), Maceió (AL) e Picos (PI). Os teores de fenóis totais foram determinados pelo no método de Folin Ciocalteau, utilizando-se ácido p-cumárico como referência. A dosagem de flavonóides totais baseou-se em dois métodos espectrofotométricos complementares: cloreto de alumínio e dinitrofenil-hidrazina, usando-se quercetina e pinocembrina, respectivamente, como referências. Os teores de ceras foram obtidos por extração com clorofórmio, tratamento com metanol e pesagem do resíduo. Os resultados demonstraram grande diversidade química entre as amostras estudadas, inclusive entre amostras do mesmo estado. Tal é o caso das amostras de Lavras e Mira Bela, e Bauru e Pariquera-Açu. Os teores de fenóis totais variaram de 0,91% a 41,63%, sendo o maior percentual referente à amostra de própolis vermelha (Maceió). Esses resultados são superiores aos obtidos com própolis do Uruguai, Argentina, Paraguai, China e países da Europa, e também de própolis verde brasileira. Os valores obtidos para flavonóides totais variaram entre 0,31% e 4,43%, valores próximos aos encontrados por outros pesquisadores de própolis brasileiras, porém inferiores aos relatados para própolis européia, que variam entre 1,1% e 22,3%. Os teores de ceras determinados, variando entre 5,37% e 45,88%, são superiores aos relatados para outras amostras de própolis brasileiras, sendo comparáveis apenas às própolis chinesas, cujo teor é de aproximadamente 30%. Com base nos teores dosados, foi feita análise de componentes principais (PCA). As amostras de Maceió, Cabo Verde, Pirenópolis e Bauru emergiram isoladamente das demais. Pariquera-Açu e Mira Bela sobressaíram-se no outro extremo do gráfico, devido a baixos teores de compostos fenólicos e altos índices de ceras. As amostras de Picos, Lavras e Ponta Grossa agruparam-se em função de teores de fenóis totais expressivos e de ceras relativamente altos. Foram analisadas as frações clorofórmicas e metanólicas de todas as amostras por HPLC-MS e CG-EM. Essas análises revelaram que as amostras de Bauru, Lavras e Cabo Verde têm composição típica de própolis verde, com muitos fenilpropanóides prenilados e derivados de ácido cafeoilquínico. A composição da própolis de Maceió diferiu muito das demais, incluindo a presença de chalconas. Tais substâncias nunca foram relatadas em própolis anteriormente. As própolis de Pirenópolis e Picos assemelham-se pela presença de muitos flavonóides glicosilados, substâncias nunca reportadas anteriormente para própolis. As amostras de Ponta Grossa, Pariquera-Açu e Mira Bela têm perfil químico intermediário entre a própolis verde e própolis com flavonóides glicosilados. Essas afinidades químicas ficaram bem evidenciadas por meio de análise de agrupamento, usando-se as substâncias identificadas como variáveis e o método de agrupamento UPGMA. Os resultados evidenciam que os tipos de própolis brasileiras não se restringem a doze, como proposto anteriormente. As análises químicas revelaram três tipos adicionais: Maceió, Pirenópolis / Picos e Ponta Grossa / Pariquera-Açu / Mira Bela. A enorme diversidade da composição da própolis produzida no Brasil realça a importância da realização de estudos para a determinação de perfis químicos e fontes botânicas de resinas. Esses conhecimentos são essenciais para o uso adequado de produtos da própolis no mercado nacional e internacional. / Propolis is a resinous substance comprising exsudates collected from plants and substances produced by bees, with texture and colour varying according to the plant source of resin and respective phenology. This product is used in the hive with various purposes: to seal holes and line the hive entrance and to embalm the bodies of killed invaders. The interest in propolis has increased recently, mainly due to experimental evidences of its biological activities, such as cytotoxic, anti-herpes, anti-HIV, antitumoral, anti-microbial and antioxidant. The chemical composition of propolis is complex, including, in addition to beeswax, flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenoids and volatile substances, among other constituents. The composition depends on many factors, mainly the region, where it was produced. In the present work the chemical profile of the Brazilian propolis was established based on the content of total phenolic substances, total flavonoids and waxes of samples from distinct regions of the Brazilian territory: Ponta Grossa (PR), Bauru and Pariquera-Açu (SP), Lavras and Mira Bela (MG), Pirenópolis (GO), Cabo Verde (BA), Maceio (AL) and Picos (PI). The contents of total phenols were obtained by the Folin-Ciocalteau method, using p-coumaric acid as reference. Determination of total flavonoids was based on two spectrophotometric complementary methods: alluminum chloride and dinitrophenyl-hydrazine, using quercetin and pinocembrin, respectively, as references. Determination of wax contents was carried out by extraction with chloroform, treatment with methanol and weight of the residue. The results revealed a wide chemical variety among the samples, even between samples from the same state, as are the cases of samples from Lavras and Mira Bela and from Bauru and Pariquera-Açu. Total phenol contents varied in the range 0,91%-41,63%, highest figures corresponding to red propolis from Maceio. The contents determined are higher than those obtained with propolis from Uruguai, Argentina, Paraguai, China and Europe, and also with Brazilian green propolis. Regarding values of total flavonoids, they ranged from 0,31% to 4,43%, similar to results reported by other researchers with Brazilian propolis, but lower than contents of European propolis, which has varied in the range 1,1%-22,3%. Wax contents varied from 5,37% to 45,88%, such figures being higher than values of Brazilian propolis reported by other authors, but comparable with Chinese propolis, which content is close to 30%. Based on the results obtained a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was carried out. Samples from Maceio, Cabo Verde, Pirenópolis and Bauru emerged isolated. Pariquera-Açu and Mira Bela standed out as a group in the other end of the graphic, due to low contents of phenolic compounds and high levels of waxes. The samples from Picos, Lavras and Ponta Grossa comprised another group, based on salient contents of total phenols and relatively high contents of waxes. Chloroform and methanolic fractions from each sample were analyzed by HPLC-MS and GC-MS. These analyses showed that samples from Bauru, Lavras and Cabo Verde have composition typical of green propolis, with many prenylated phenylpropanoids and cafeoylquinic acid derivatives. The composition of the Maceio propolis differed very much, standing out by having exclusive constituents, such as chalcones, a class of flavonoids never reported for propolis. Propolis from Pirenopolis and Picos are alike due to many glycosilated flavonoids, substances also never reported for propolis. Samples from Ponta Grossa, Pariquera-Açu and Mira Bela have chemical profiles intermediate between green propolis and those with glycosilated flavonoids. The commented chemical affinities were evident in clustering analysis carried out with the identified substances as variables and UPGMA method. These results constitute evidence that Brazilian propolis cannot be grouped in only twelve types, as has been suggested. The present chemical analyses revealed three additional types: Maceió, Pirenópolis/Picos e Ponta Grossa/Pariquera-Açu/Mira Bela. The huge diversity of the composition of propolis produced in Brazil highlight the importance of studies for determination of chemical profiles and resin botanical sources. Such findings are essential for adequate use of propolis products both in the national and international market.

[pt] Emulsões podem ser formadas durante o processo de exploração dos reservatórios de petróleo. Essas emulsões podem trazer diversos prejuízos, como mudanças nas características dos óleos e problemas no bombeamento. Diante disso, aditivos químicos capazes de promover a desestabilização de emulsões de petróleo são importantes para otimizar o processo produtivo e mitigar os problemas causados. Há diversos estudos dedicados à avaliação de substâncias para atuar como desemulsificantes. Porém, a compreensão de como a estrutura química dos aditivos está correlacionada com as características físico-químicas dos óleos e emulsões ainda é escasso. Esse trabalho tem como objetivo entender como as características dos aditivos estão relacionadas com as particularidades de óleos parafínicos e asfaltênicos. Para isso, três óleos brasileiros foram usados para preparar e caracterizar emulsões água-óleo e avaliar sua estabilidade após o uso de diferentes aditivos. As emulsões preparadas com esses óleos apresentaram grandes diferenças nas propriedades reológicas. Entre elas, a viscosidade e gelificação em um dos óleos parafínicos, o que pode impactar diretamente na eficiência de desemulsificação devido à dificuldade de incorporação dos aditivos no bulk da emulsão. A estabilidade das emulsões foi estudada por testes de envelhecimento em diferentes condições de temperatura sem e com adição de diferentes aditivos: surfactantes, polímeros, ácidos orgânicos e inorgânicos e álcoois. De forma geral, aditivos anfifílicos com grupos aniônicos apresentaram melhor eficiência desemulsificante para todos os óleos. A aromaticidade, a acidez e o volume molecular dos aditivos também foram características importantes para a desemulsificação, porém, dependem da temperatura. Confirmou-se que a escolha de um desemulsificante para emulsões de petróleo depende da composição dos óleos e das características reológicas das emulsões formadas. Para emulsões de óleos parafínicos a temperatura foi determinante na eficiência de desemulsificação, enquanto para o óleo asfaltênico, a acidez influenciou mais. / [en] Emulsions can be formed during the exploration process of oil reservoirs. These emulsions, when unwanted, can bring several losses, such as loss of oil and changes in its characteristics and problems in pumping. Therefore, the development of chemical additives capable of promoting the destabilization of oil emulsions is important to optimize the production process and mitigate the problems caused. In the literature, there are several studies dedicated to the evaluation of substances to act as demulsifiers. However, the understanding of how the chemical structure of additives is correlated with the physicochemical characteristics of oils and emulsions is still scarce. This work aims to understand how the characteristics of the substances are related to the particularities of oils and their emulsions to better understand how demulsification occurs and also to propose additives with greater efficiency for the systems studied. To this end, three Brazilian oils were used to prepare water-oil emulsions and to evaluate the demulsifying capacity of different chemical additives. The stability of the emulsions was studied by aging tests under different temperature conditions without and with the addition of the different additives: surfactants, polymers, organic and inorganic acids and alcohols. The tests were carried out under different conditions to evaluate the effect of temperature mainly due to the high paraffin content in some oils. The characterization of the emulsions (without additives) showed large differences in rheological properties between the systems prepared with oils. These include viscosity, thixotropy and gelation in one of the paraffinic oils, which can directly impact the demulsification efficiency due to the difficulty of incorporating the additives into the emulsion bulk. From the aging tests, it was generally observed that amphiphilic substances with high interfacial activity and with anionic groups showed better demulsifying efficiency for all oils. The aromaticity, acidity and molecular volume of the additives were also important characteristics for demulsification, but they are temperature dependent. Finally, it was concluded that in general, the choice of a demulsifier for petroleum emulsions depends on the composition of the oils and the rheological characteristics of the emulsions formed. For paraffinic oil emulsions, the temperature was decisive for the demulsification efficiency, whereas, for the others, the acidity proved to be more decisive.

Los mercados internacionales de aceites comestibles se caracterizan por la competitividad y las exigencias de calidad, lo que localmente demanda mejores métodos para la caracterización y el control de calidad de materias primas y productos, la optimización de las tecnologías y condiciones de procesamiento y almacenamiento, y el desarrollo de productos o procesos alternativos que permitan el mejor aprovechamiento de los subproductos. El complejo aceitero argentino es uno de los sectores de la industria alimenticia que ha evidenciado un gran crecimiento durante los últimos años, habiendo incrementado significativamente su capacidad de procesamiento. El aceite de girasol es, en nuestro país, el segundo en importancia después del de soja, teniendo en cuenta sus características de sabor suave y su tenue color amarillo, resulta uno de los preferidos para su empleo doméstico o industrial. La extracción por solvente es la etapa fundamental en la obtención de aceites vegetales a partir de semillas oleaginosas, es un proceso complejo debido a las características de la estructura celular del vegetal y a que junto a los triglicéridos son extraídos los componentes minoritarios. En nuestro país la industria oleaginosa destina la mayor parte de su producción a la exportación, por lo que las exigencias de calidad que enfrentan requieren de la optimización de los procesos de fabricación y un conocimiento detallado de las variables que los afectan. Es por ello que los estudios realizados en esta área tienen una aplicación inmediata en la industria local, y son de gran importancia tanto científica como técnica. Los objetivos de esta tesis son: 1. Estudiar el proceso de extracción por solvente de aceites vegetales, específicamente aceite de girasol, considerando la influencia de los compuestos minoritarios en el procesamiento de la materia prima y la calidad del aceite obtenido. 2. Estudiar la extracción de ceras de girasol mediante el lavado de la semilla evaluando la conveniencia del uso de distintos solventes y el efecto del tiempo de contacto y la temperatura. A continuación se detalla la organización del trabajo realizado. En cada uno de los capítulos se describen resultados, conclusiones y bibliografía consultada. En el capítulo 1 se realiza una descripción del panorama mundial de la demanda de aceite de girasol y de los subproductos del sistema oleaginoso. Se analiza brevemente la producción de aceite de girasol en Argentina y se plantean los objetivos específicos de la tesis. En el capítulo 2 se describe al Helianthus annuus L. y la composición de aceite analizando compuestos mayoritarios y minoritarios (tocoferoles, fosfolípidos y ceras). Se exhibe una breve reseña del procesamiento de las semillas de girasol para la extracción del aceite y de los procesos de refinamiento del aceite crudo. El capítulo 3 describe las materias primas utilizadas y presenta la metodología experimental empleada. Se detallan las técnicas utilizadas para la cuantificación de los compuestos minoritarios de interés que contribuyen a la calidad y estabilidad del aceite (fosfolípidos, tocoferoles y ceras) En el capítulo 4 se caracteriza la materia prima. Se analizan las características generales y distribución de tamaño de las semillas utilizadas en el estudio de extractabilidad de ceras, así como la distribución en la semilla de los compuestos menores (fosfolípidos, tocoferoles y ceras). En cuanto a las muestras procedentes del proceso de extracción de aceite se presenta un análisis del contenido de humedad, aceite y compuestos minoritarios. En el capítulo 5 se estudia la extracción de ceras de girasol mediante el lavado de las semillas, evaluando la conveniencia del uso de distintos solventes y el efecto del tiempo de contacto y la temperatura. Se analiza también el efecto de este método de eliminación de ceras sobre la aptitud al descascarado que presentan las semillas. En el capítulo 6 se exponen las curvas de extracción del aceite de expellers de girasol y de los compuestos minoritarios (tocoferoles, fosfolípidos y ceras), obtenidas en un sistema batch, a diferentes temperaturas. El objetivo fue obtener curvas de extracción y la aplicación de un modelo para la determinación de los coeficientes de difusividad efectivos. En el capítulo 7 se presenta un análisis de la variación de la composición del aceite y calidad del mismo simulando las distintas etapas de un extractor industrial en estado estacionario. La información obtenida de las curvas cinéticas del aceite y de los compuestos menores se incorporó en un programa de simulación teniendo en cuenta varias etapas de extracción. El capítulo 8 resume las conclusiones generales y propone algunas futuras líneas de investigación. / The international markets of edible oils are characterized by the competitiveness and the demands of quality. This fact locally requires of improved methods for the characterization and the quality control of raw material and products, the optimization of the technologies and the processing and storage conditions, and the development of products or alternative processes that allow the best by-products use. The Argentinean oily complex is one of the sectors of the food industry that has evidenced a huge growth during the last years, having increased its processing capacity significantly. The sunflower oil is, in our country, the second in importance after soya oil. Due to its soft flavor and delicate yellow color, it is preferred domestic or industrial use. The solvent extraction is the fundamental stage in the vegetable-oil production from oilseeds. It is a complex process due to both the characteristics of the cellular structure and the extraction of minor compounds together with the triglycerides. In our country, oil enterprises assign a high percentage of its production for export. In this way, they confront a quality demand that needs of the process optimization together with a depth knowledge of the variables that affect the oil extraction. That is the reason of why the studies carried out in this area have an immediate application in the local industry, and they are of great scientifical and technical relevance. The objectives of this thesis are: 1. Study the solvent extraction process of vegetable oils, specifically sunflower oil, considering the influence of the minor compounds in the processing of the raw material and the quality of the obtained oil. 2. Study the extraction of sunflower waxes through the seed washing, evaluating the suitability of the use of different solvents and the effect of contact time and temperature. The organization of the work is given below. Results, conclusions and reviewed bibliography are described in each chapter. Chapter 1 shows the world demand of sunflower oil and their by-products. The production of sunflower oil in Argentina is analyzed shortly and the specific objectives of the thesis are outlined. Chapter 2 describes the Helianthus annuus L. specie, and the composition of its oil analyzing majority and minority compounds (tocopherols, phospholipids and waxes). A brief review about the oil extraction process and its refining is exhibited. Chapter 3 gives a general description of the raw materials and describes the experimental methodology used in this thesis. In addition, the techniques used for the quantification of minor compounds that contribute to the quality and stability of the oil (phospholipids, tocopherols and waxes) are detailed. Chapter 4 characterizes the raw materials. The main characteristics and size distribution of the seeds used in the waxes extractability study as well as the distribution of the minor compounds (phospholipids, tocopherols and waxes) in the seed are analyzed, an analysis of the humidity, oil and minor-compounds contents of the samples coming from the oil extraction process is presented. Chapter 5 studies the extraction of sunflower waxes through the washing of the seeds, evaluating the convenience of the use of different solvents and the effect of contact time and temperature. It is also analyzed the solvent washing effect on both the wax removal and the seed dehulling ability. Chapter 6 gives the extraction curves of major (triglycerides) and minor compounds (tocopherols, phospholipids and waxes) obtained from sunflower expellers at different temperatures and batch system. A model is applied for the determination of effective-diffusion coefficients. Chapter 7 presents an analysis of the variation of oil composition and quality, simulating the different stages of an industrial extractor in stationary state. The obtained information of the kinetic curves of the oil and of the minor compounds was implemented in a simulation software that takes into account several extraction stages. Chapter 8 summarizes the main conclusions and proposes some future investigation lines.

An AFM relative stiffness technique was applied to reconstituted Beta vulgaris L. wax films. Consecutive force arrays (n=100) made on the waxy surface at the same locations showed that there was no relative change in surface elasticity and this information was used as a reference to further experimental measurements. A surfactant solution was subsequently dropped on the waxy surface and the same array of indents was made at the same location as the reference test. The plant wax surface showed a reduction in its surface elasticity properties. The study has demonstrated that the AFM technique could be used to undertake a systematic assessment of the plasticising effects of agrochemicals on native and reconstituted plant wax films.

O aumento da utilização de embalagens do tipo PET nos últimos anos tem feito com que produtores de óleo se preocupem com a oxidação. Neste trabalho, óleos de milho e canola isentos de antioxidante e ácido cítrico foram adicionados de diferentes concentrações de TBHQ e submetidos a testes acelerados de oxidação acelerada em estufa a 63 0 C por 120 horas e em câmara de fotoxidação por 168 horas. Foram analisados o índice de peróxido e as absortividades em 232 nm e 270 nm nestes óleos. A partir dos resultados de índice de peróxido obtidos nos óleos com as diferentes concentrações de TBHQ no teste em estufa, foram calculadas as melhores doses e doses econômicas de 119 mg/kg e 115 mg/kg TBHQ para o óleo de milho e de 116 mg/kg e 108 mg/kg TBHQ, respectivamente, para o óleo de canola em estudo. Um ensaio ao ambiente foi conduzido usando 115 mg/kg de TBHQ, para o óleo de milho e 108 mg/kg de TBHQ, para o óleo de canola, valores menores que o máximo permitido pela legislação. Ambos os óleos foram armazenados em frascos de PET por 6 meses em condições tão satisfatórias quanto quando adicionados do máximo permitido pela legislação. / The increasing utilization of PET packaging in the last years in Brazil has concerned oil producers regarding oxidation. In this work, corn and canola oils, free from antioxidants and citric acid, were added of different TBHQ concentrations, and submited to accelerated (thermo and light induced) oxidation in a Schaal oven test at 63 0 C for 120 hours and in a photooxidation chamber for 168 hours. Peroxide and absorbance values at 232 nm and 270 nm were analysed in these oils. From the Schaal oven test, oil peroxide values were plotted against TBHQ concentrations and the best and the economical doses were determinated to be 119 mg/kg and 115 mg/kg TBHQ, respectively, for corn oil and 116 mg/kg and 108 mg/kg TBHQ, respectively, for canola oil. A shelf life test in PET flasks was conducted using 115 mg/kg TBHQ, for corn oil, and 108 mg/kg TBHQ, for canola oil, values that are lower than the maximum allowed by legislation and both oils were kept for 6 months.