Hard red winter wheat (winter wheat, Triticum aestivum L.) production has been historically low in ND due to cold winter temperatures resulting in winter injury and stand loss. The objective of this research was to determine if management practices could improve winter survival and yield of winter wheat. Field experiments were conducted at five locations. Due to high winter snowfall, there was little difference in snow depth and winter survival between previous crop residues. Planting at the recommended date always resulted in the highest winter survival compared to planting late. At Hettinger, soil temperatures reached nearly -15°C, and as a result, the less-hardy cultivar Hawken had only 50% winter survival. Differences in fertility treatment were not consistent across location during this study. ND soils are inherently high in P and K, so it is likely the high soil nutrient levels masked any potential benefit to seed-applied P and K.

Three crosses were used to study the inheritance of the sedimentation properties in hard red winter wheat. The parents of the three crosses were the variety Delmar, and the breeding lines 217-61- 7-14 and 217 - 19- 5. Delmar has high sedimentation properties, 217-6 1-7-14 is intermediate, and 217-19-5 has very poor sedimentation qualities. Sedimentation tests were run on five replications of the parents and 300 samples of the F3 populations in each cross. A semi-micro sedimentation test (a one-fourth scale test) was run on 200 F2 plants and the F1's from each cross. The distributions from each cross were analyzed and the type of gene action and possible number of genes involved were estimated. There were two general trends apparent in the progeny of all three crosses. (1) In the F2 generation there were more low parental types than high parental types recovered. This situation was reversed in each of the F3 populations where more high parental types were recovered than the low parental types (2) All three F3means were about 10 units higher than their respective F2 means. The type of gene action appeared to be mainly additive but with some partial dominance for the high parent in each cross . Depending on the cross, from one to three genes were estimated to be functioning in the determination of the sedimentation properties.

Optimum spring N fertilizer rates for winter wheat in Virginia vary widely from field to field, but traditionally spring N is applied at a uniform rate to all fields. A recently-developed tissue test procedure provides a field-specific evaluation of crop N status and predicts optimum N rate for the second spring N application in a split spring application management system. However, this procedure is based on a small number of researcher-planted experiments utilizing a single cultivar; it fails to provide field-specific rate recommendations for the first spring N application; and it is not accessible to farmers who are unwilling to split their spring N applications. Our objectives were: to evaluate the reliability of the tissue test procedure in a large number of farmer fields; to develop a method for making field-specific N rate recommendations for the first spring application in a split-application management system; and to develop a method for making field-specific N rate recommendations in a single-application management system. Forty-five spring N rate experiments were established in farmer fields over a five-year period. A range of N fertilizer rates was applied in early spring (Zadoks growth stage 25) and again in mid-spring (Zadoks growth stage 30) in all possible combinations. Yield data were used to calculate economic optimum N rates at growth stage (GS) 25 and GS 30 with split-application management, and at GS 25 with single-application management. These optima were regressed against a variety of predictor variables measured in the same fields. The reliability of the previously-developed tissue test procedure for making GS 30 N rate recommendations was confirmed. Tiller density was the best predictor of optimum GS 25 N rate with split-application management, while soil nitrate to 90 cm was the best predictor of optimum GS 25 N rate with single-application management. These three relationships fit together to form a flexible and powerful system for making spring N rate recommendations for winter wheat. This system increased estimated profit and apparent fertilizer efficiency in these experiments. / Ph. D.

Soft red winter wheat (Saluda c.v.) was fertilized using three treatments; urea, urea + KCl, and urea + sulfur. The wheat was harvested and milled and the flour produced was used to evaluate the baking quality of the wheat. Objective tests were performed on the flour samples. Significant differences in flour analysis were found among the three treatments. Farinograph curves for all treatments had medium peak time and short stability giving all samples hard red winter and hard red spring wheat characteristics. Flour from nitrogen-treated grain was most tolerant to mixing and was significantly a stronger flour according to its mixing tolerance index (MTI) value, peak time value, and absorption value. Flour treated with KCl had mixed characteristics; absorption and peak times gave it strong flour characteristics, while MTI value gave it medium-strength characteristics. Sulfur-treated flour exhibited medium-strength characteristics. Ash results demonstrated that KCl treatment had significantly higher ash content and was not suitable for the cake batter. All treatments had higher protein contents than those characteristics of cake and cookie flours. Yellow cakes were baked for all three treatments and objective and sensory tests were performed. The flour treated with nitrogen and KCl produced cakes of low quality, sunken structure, dense in texture, and low in volume. Cakes made with sulfur-treated flour retained their structure and had the highest volume, but the texture was still dense. Sensory panelists found cakes made from sulfur-treated flour lighter in texture than KCl and nitrogen treatments. Cakes from nitrogen-treated flour were perceived as being denser than the rest. / Master of Science

Dry matter production must be predicted to utilize nitrogen recommendation models for winter wheat at growth stage 30. Four methods of dry matter estimation were evaluated for their ability to predict dry matter production. The pasture probe, height, and rising plate methods did not have adequate prediction ability. The drop plate method predicted dry matter with an r² of prediction of 0.82 for all sites combined. The predictive ability for an individual site was lower. The combined model on an individual site caused a wide range of errors. Consequently, the four methods are not recommended for estimating dry matter. The changes in percent nitrogen and dry matter near growth stage 30 were measured. Dry matter increased significantly, but percent nitrogen did not vary significantly. The number of clipped samples necessary to estimate the dry matter for the five ha field studied was four samples. The number of samples needed for larger fields will depend on the variability of the dry matter in the field and on the variation inherent to the sampling technique. Adequate potassium nutrition is required for high yields of winter wheat. Current soil test levels were evaluated and found to adequately describe the crop’s need for potassium. The influence of preplant and growth stage 25 applied potassium on yield and lodging was evaluated. On the medium to high potassium test soils used, the timing of the application did not affect yields or lodging. Ethephon reduced lodging better than potassium. / Master of Science

Jointed goatgrass (Aegilops cylindrica Host) infestations in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production regions of the central and western USA result in severe economic losses in the wheat market. Field and greenhouse studies were conducted to determine the vernalization requirements of winter wheat, spring wheat, jointed goatgrass, and wheat by jointed goatgrass reciprocal hybrid plants. In field studies, jointed goatgrass plants required more vernalization to produce spikelets and germinable seed than 'Madsen' winter wheat plants. In greenhouse studies, plants of jointed goatgrass populations collected from Oregon and Washington wheat fields required fewer vernalization days to reach the joint stage than Madsen plants. Detailed observations in the greenhouse revealed a longer period between jointing and anthesis for most jointed goatgrass populations that was overlooked in field studies. Vernalization for 6-wk represents the minimum treatment for synchronous reproductive development among jointed goatgrass populations, Madsen winter wheat, and Madsen by jointed goatgrass hybrids, yet the risk of gene transfer might be greater after 7-wk vernalization. In the jointed goatgrass populations tested, there was not selection for a vernalization insensitive growth habit. Because jointed goatgrass spikelets often contain two seed, germination was recorded for primary and secondary positioned seed. Germination of freshly harvested jointed goatgrass seed was promoted by 25/15 C day/night temperatures. However, light and 30/20 C incubation was necessary for maximum germination of non-dormant, primary positioned seed. Both primary and secondary positioned seed within jointed goatgrass spikelets were non-dormant after 16-wk after-ripening at 22 ± 2 C. Under optimum growing conditions, no planting depth selectively allowed wheat germination and emergence while preventing jointed goatgrass germination and emergence. Glume removal did not alleviate dormancy completely in jointed goatgrass seed. Research confirmed jointed goatgrass population polymorphism for vernalization requirements and seed dormancy. Jointed goatgrass reproductive variability might be part of a general purpose genotype strategy to germinate and colonize a wide range of environments. Wheat by jointed goatgrass hybrid plants should be removed from winter and spring wheat fields. Despite a short dormancy period, three or more years of rotation outside of winter annual crops may be necessary to reduce populations of jointed goatgrass. / Graduation date: 2006

Master of Science / Department of Grain Science and Industry / Jon M. Faubion / Rebecca Miller / Water absorption tolerance is an important parameter in commercial bread production. Hard winter wheat (HWW) flours have shown different water absorption tolerance behaviors in routine wheat quality analysis. Flours with high water absorption tolerance allow broader variation in water addition without affecting optimum dough conditions. Although studies have demonstrated that genotype and environmental factors affect optimum water absorption, mixing time and dough strength, there is no research defining or quantifying water absorption tolerance behavior or explaining reasons and factors affecting such behavior and its correlation with end product quality. Using the mixograph®, this study identified high and low absorption tolerance behaviors in five HRW varieties (Jagger, Jagalene, Fuller, 2137 and Overley) grown in six locations (Finney, Labette, Republic, Thomas, Riley and Sumner Counties) in Kansas, during crop year 2009. Milling, wheat and flour quality tests, Solvent Retention Capacity (SRC), damaged starch, protein composition and identification, flour and starch particle size distribution and bread baking tests were conducted and analyzed. Jagger grown at Finney County possessed the largest water absorption tolerance range while the smallest range was observed for Fuller grown at Riley and Sumner Counties. A positive high correlation was observed between water absorption tolerance and the following parameters: protein content, kernel hardness, extractable polymeric proteins, unextractable polymeric proteins, gliadins and flour particle size (41-300 μm). SDS PAGE and proteomic analyses determined that γ-gliadins were present in a significantly higher concentration in the high tolerance sample suggesting that these proteins play a primary role in water absorption tolerance behavior. The five wheat varieties grown at locations with high and low water absorption tolerance were blended together by location and test baked at three different absorption levels. Loaf volume varied between flours but did not vary between different water levels. It is unclear if this was an effect of the differing protein contents of the blends, water tolerance or both. However, a negative effect on crumb grain characteristics was observed when lower water levels were used.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Entomology / R. Jeff Whitworth / The Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say), has been a historically significant pest of wheat in Kansas. However, it has been 60+ years since research has been conducted examining the flies’ activity throughout the year. Results of pheromone trapping in 4 counties in Kansas shows that Hessian fly (HF) males are actively flying in the fall, at least 1 month after the historical fly-free dates. Therefore, the Hessian Fly-Free Date is no longer valid and should be referred to as the Best Pest Management Date. Using pheromones for fall and spring trapping also indicated that HF is more active throughout the spring than previously thought, with almost continuous fly emergence and numerous emergence peaks in both spring and fall. The use of resistant wheat cultivars has been adapted to protect seedling plants from HF larval feeding in the fall. However, it is unknown if these cultivars are still providing protection after winter vernalization. Greenhouse trials indicated that ‘Armour’, a cultivar considered intermediately resistant, remains resistant under infestation levels of 1 fly/tiller but significant seed weight losses occured under infestations of 3 flies/tiller. In the field, Armour did not provide protection post-vernalization, with plants containing similar numbers of flaxseeds (pupae) as the susceptible cultivar, ‘Fuller’, and having significant losses of culm height (cm), number of spikelets/spike, number of seeds/spike, and seed weight (grams) when infested. ‘Duster’, a cultivar considered highly resistant, appeared to provide resistance to HF larval feeding in both the greenhouse and the field, and even produced significantly heavier seeds when infested with 3 flies/tiller in the greenhouse. These results suggest that post-vernalization screening should be conducted on all HF resistant cultivars to determine if each continues to provide protection. Little information is available showing if and how HF larval feeding on more mature wheat (Feekes 7-10), post-vernalization, impact plants, aside from lodging. Greenhouse and field infestations of a susceptible cultivar, Fuller, showed that significant losses of culm height (cm), number of seeds/spikelet, and seed weight will result from as few as 1 larva /culm. Yield losses averaged 0.13g/spike (65 kg/ha) compared to non-infested plants.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Agronomy / Phillip W. Stahlman / Saflufenacil is an experimental herbicide for control of broadleaf weeds in various crops including several herbicide resistant weed biotypes. Wheat is highly tolerant to preplant and preemergence applications of saflufenacil, but winter wheat growers prefer to apply herbicides postemergence (POST) in early spring. Objectives of this research were to (1) evaluate winter wheat and four common broadleaf weed species response to POST treatments of saflufenacil applied alone and in combination with bentazon or auxin herbicides at various rates both with and without adjuvants, and to (2) determine the possible mechanism(s) responsible for crop safening observed when saflufenacil is applied with 2,4-D amine or bentazon in winter wheat. Growth chamber, greenhouse, and field studies showed saflufenacil at a minimum rate of 25 g/ha controlled blue mustard and flixweed >85% when saflufenacil was applied alone or mixed with dicamba, 2,4-D amine, 2,4-D ester, or MCPA ester. Also, mixtures of bentazon with 13 g/ha of saflufenacil resulted in death of kochia, but increasingly higher rates of 2,4-D amine were needed to achieve 90% growth reduction when saflufenacil rates were decreased from 50 to 25 to 13 g/ha. In general, most of the saflufenacil combinations tested controlled henbit <85%. Leaf necrosis and stunting of winter wheat were reduced by tank mixing saflufenacil with dicamba, 2,4-D amine, or bentazon, but not with MCPA ester or 2,4-D ester. Including nonionic surfactant (NIS) in mixtures of saflufenacil plus 2,4-D amine resulted in significant wheat injury similar or greater than injury caused by saflufenacil plus NIS. Finally, 2,4-D amine enhanced saflufenacil absorption into winter wheat plants, whereas bentazon reduced absorption of saflufenacil. No more than 11% of applied saflufenacil translocated out of treated leaves to other plant parts when applied alone or when saflufenacil was mixed with 2,4-D amine or bentazon. Metabolism of saflufenacil by wheat plants was not affected by tank mixing with bentazon, but saflufenacil metabolism was slowed by mixing with 2,4-D amine. Overall, these studies indicate saflufenacil can potentially be used POST in wheat at an optimum rate of 25 g/ha plus 2,4-D amine or dicamba to effectively control blue mustard and flixweed.

Bandymai vykdyti 2007- 2008 metais Kėdainių raj. “Edfermus” įmonėje, Aristavos ŽŪB, Algimanto Kižausko, Mariaus Juodenio, Algimanto Gineito ūkiuose. Žieminius kviečius papildomai patręšus bamblėjimo tarpsnyje N30 norma gautas esminis nuo 0,3 iki 0,4 t ha-1 derliaus priedas. Geriausios kokybės grūdus subrandino labai gerų kepimo savybių žieminių kviečių veislės 'Maunier', 'Zentos', 'Ada' bei gerų kepimo savybių veislė 'Sw Maxi'. Papildomas tręšimas bamblėjimo tarpsnyje (N30) gerino grūdų kokybinius rodiklius, bet skirtumai nevisur buvo esminiai. Grūdų, išlaikytų 30, 60 ir 90 dienų, palyginus su tik ką nukultais, kokybiniai rodikliai prastėjo. Didesni praradimai nustatyti labai gerų kepimo savybių bei gerų kepimo savybių veislių bei patręštų bamblėjimo tarpsnyje N30 norma žieminių kviečių grūduose. / Test was do in the distric of Kėdainiai, in firm Edfermus, Asistavos farm, Algimantas Kižauskas, Marius Juodenis and Algimantas Gineitas farms. Additional fertilization of winter wheat phase of the N30 bamblėjimo obtained substantial rate from 0.3 to0.4 t ha -1 yield. The best qualities nurtured very good baking qualities of winter wheat varieties 'Maunier', 'Zentos', 'Ada' and good baking properties of breed 'Sw Soul'. Additional bamblėjimo fertilization stage (N30) improved grain quality indicators, but the differences were not widely critical. Cereals, for 30, 60 and 90 days, compared with just whack, quality indicators deteriorated. Bigger losses for very good cooking qualities and good cooking qualities and varieties of manured bamblėjimo phase N30 rate of winter wheat grain.