This research focuses upon a group of women who are white and working class they live on the St Anns council estate in Nottingham and they are all mothers to mixed-race children. The focus of this study from the outset is to challenge the often negative and homogenous readings and namings of council estates in the UK and their residents. The problems that are within Britain's council estates are often complex and difficult to understand, therefore the research sets out to explain some of those complexities, whilst highlighting the disadvantages the women experience in their daily lives. The research explores the interaction between class, race and gender but also space, examining how poor neighbourhoods have become known in recent times as spaces of social exclusion and their residents have become known as 'the excluded'. The research explores how the women find value for themselves and their children when their social positions have been subject to stigma, and disrespect and their practices are misrecognised. Therefore the research examines the local value system and the local resources which are available and used by the residents of this council estate and asks in the absence of universal social and economic resources can people find value locally.

This thesis is an exploration of the production of feminist theory as a material, social, and institutional practice: it aims to understand feminist intellectual production as to some extent circumscribed by historical, biographical, political, and especially academic conditions. Specifically, it compares the intellectual trajectories and scholarly output, feminist and otherwise, of theologian Mary Daly (1928-2010) and philosopher Judith Butler (1956--). The analysis tries to keep three aspects of those lives in mind at once: firstly, the properly intellectual character of the intellectuals’ ideas; secondly, the specifically institutional (that is, university) conditions in which they have found themselves; and thirdly, the broader biographical conditions of their lives. By keeping all three in mind at once, we get to a potentially fuller and more nuanced picture of their intellectual trajectories than may be available through critical appraisal of their works alone. The thesis is an original contribution to knowledge both in as much as it brings together Daly and Butler, two apparently fundamentally opposed feminists, in order to see what thinking them together allows us to do, and in the applications and adaptations of Pierre Bourdieu’s social theory which help explain these feminists’ trajectories. Through a re-working of Bourdieu’s theoretical apparatus, the analysis works through the concept of fields of intellectual endeavour. Academic disciplines but also broader structures such as the field of intellectual production work with and against intellectual producers, creating both possibilities and constraints for intellectual work. Developing a broadly Bourdieusian theory of symbiotic relations between what Bourdieu terms habitus and field (that is, trying to identify the mutual constitution of these aspects of social life rather than the primacy of either), the thesis argues for the fundamental role of agential negotiation and strategy in the context of institutional and disciplinary constraint. And in the context of this adapted Bourdieusian theory, I argue finally for the disciplinary field of women’s studies as a potentially fruitful institutional and intellectual space for a feminist negotiation of the university.

Key words: Thailand, sex tourism, sex industry, authenticity, voyeurism, tourist experience Research on sex tourism in Thailand has often focused on western men’s sexual interactions with local women (Cohen, 1982; Enloe, 1989; Brown, 2001), and the sexualized entertainment on offer in eroticized tourist spaces/places is assumed to be aimed at western male tourists (Manderson, 1992; Bowes, 2004). While a number of academics have studied sexualized spaces and venues, little has been written on how and to what extent western women engage with this type of touristic entertainment in the Thai (sex tourism) context (Odzer, 1994; Manderson, 1995; Sikes, 2006). This is despite the fact that the number of female tourists visiting Thailand has increased over the past decade (TAT, 2007), and some evidence suggests that the sex industry in Thailand caters for female tourists (Vorakitphokatorn et al, 1994; Williams et al, 2007). This thesis will argue that western women are curious about the nature of the Thai sex industry, and that some tourist women seek to visually explore sexualized tourist areas as part of their ‘tourist experience’ in Thailand. Sex tourism is a contentious subject area, and investigating the extent to which western women might engage with the sex industry as part of their tourist experience necessitates a critical engagement with theoretical understandings of female sex tourism. The findings suggest that western women’s desire for an authentic tourist experience in Thailand facilitates their entry into sexualized zones. While the history of the sex industry in Thailand has helped to popularize its notoriety, discourses on tourist-oriented sexual spaces suggest that visiting a sexual show is something that is ‘ok’, and further is part of ‘real Thailand’. However, women’s visual engagement with the Others who inhabit these spaces reveals a darker side,and perhaps a voyeuristic desire to visit these venues. While part of their motivation to consume the sex industry stems from their understanding of the sex industry as authentically Thai, their contradictory interpretations of Thai sex workers reveals a darker, more complicated picture. This thesis will examine the lines that divide tourism from sex tourism practices to suggest that consuming difference and the desire to engage with exotic (and erotic) Others underpins all touristic engagements, including tourist interactions with the sex industry. Visual sex tourism practices will be outlined here, and current definitions of sex tourism will be deconstructed to reveal a more complicated picture of tourism/sex tourism practices, which calls for a closer examination of gendered tourism behaviors.

This thesis explores how Muslim family carers of chronically ill or disabled family members in Britain perceive, perform and negotiate their caring role. Drawing on data collected from forty-three semi-structured interviews, this thesis shows that although Muslim family carers are not a homogenous group; perceptions, performances and negotiations of care within the family are often mediated through a Muslim religious lens. This manifests itself in three predominant ways explored in this thesis. Firstly, Muslim religious beliefs act as a "sacred canopy" through which carers draw comfort and spiritual meaning for both their caring role and the illness and disability of the cared for relative. Secondly, certain state services are deemed as particularly problematic for upholding Muslim religious identities. Whilst health services are positively received, social services often are deemed as "dangerous" and potentially threatening to family honour (izzat). This is particularly pertinent for carers of females with learning disabilities. Thirdly, Muslim religious and cultural beliefs maintain traditional gendered perceptions of caregiving within the family, often with very little support from outside organisations. This thesis also argues that Muslim carer support organisations use interesting and innovative methods of engaging Muslim family carers as a form of "bridging social capital" to health and social services.

The question of when a child is old enough to be left at home alone, and under what circumstances, is a dilemma faced by many parents and professionals. Adopting a social constructionist perspective of social problems, this thesis explores professional perceptions and policy responses to the issue of children left at home alone since the passing of the Children Act in 1989. The law in England and Wales does not specify an age at which it is deemed safe to leave a child unsupervised at home, a practice sometimes referred to as 'self-care'. Professionals respond to the issue through non-legalistic, more persuasive interventions. The media also plays a role in regulating parenting practices, as demonstrated in the early 1990s, when the British press covered a number of stories involving parents who left their children at 'home alone'. The issue continues to bubble up from time to time, but calls for more specific law to manage the problem have gone unheeded. Drawing on interviews with child welfare professionals and campaigners who work at national level, and on an analysis of policy, campaigning and educational documents, I explore how the issue is constructed, responded to and resisted as a social problem. I conclude that this is an example of an 'unconstructed' social problem because, despite continued public and professional concern, there has been no clear legislative response. Understanding how and why some social problems 'fail' is a key contribution to the literature on the social construction of social problems, which has focused mainly on 'successful' social problems to date.

The main objective of this study was to examine the intergenerational learning behaviour within the family between Generation X parents and their Generation Y teenage children. This study was designed to investigate the nature of intergenerational knowledge exchange, to identify the characteristics of learning behaviour and culture in such 'learning families', and to find out the subject areas that parents could learn from their teenage children. The sample of this study was made up of ten pairs of middle-age parents with their teenage children coming from middle class families. A narrative inquiry approach was adopted and individual interviews were conducted when participants were asked to recall and tell stories describing their personal intergenerational learning experiences. A questionnaire was also employed to collect their opinions and experience on intergenerational family learning. Results showed that 80% of all the participants thought their family was a 'learning family'. All the parents and 90% of the teenagers found that learning experience in their family was happy. Overall, 80% of all the participants gave a score of 7 or higher when they were asked to rate their family, with a score of 10 representing an ideal 'learning family'. All the parents realised that they had something to learn from their children. The Generation X parents could learn from their Generation Y children on trendy issues such as fashion, sports, recreation, music and western cultures. More importantly, almost everyone recognised that information technology (IT), computer knowledge and skills were the stronger areas among the teenagers. Among all the narratives told, 37% were episodes describing parents learning IT skills from their teenage children. The data obtained from this study suggests that intergenerational family learning can be bi-directional. The families studied did engage in bi-directional intergenerational learning. Parents did learn from their teenage children. A positive family learning culture was found to facilitate intergenerational learning especially in the Generation Y to X direction. Intergenerational family learning was reported to be happy experience and it helped improve communication and understanding between the two generations. The participants pointed out that the learning methodology differed between the two generations due to societal changes and differences in their upbringing. Mothers and fathers play slightly different roles for intergenerational family learning according to their individual personality, interest and expertise, though mothers were believed to be more receptive and open to intergenerational learning, especially in the Generation Y to X direction. There is a close relationship between 'family learning' and 'lifelong learning'. Ideas from the participants were collated to define the concept of 'learning family', 'family learning' and 'intergenerational family learning'. From the data obtained, a conceptual framework of intergenerational family learning in relation to lifelong learning and a developmental learning profile were drawn. The results indicate that parents should foster positive learning attitudes and intergenerational learning culture in the family early at home. It is important that teenagers are empowered to share their knowledge and views. The government also has a role to play in re-defining teaching and learning practise in schools and promoting intergenerational learning in families for a knowledge society.

This thesis explores men's experience of raising children alone, and addresses a central question for men's engagement in care: Can men mother? If men can mother, what makes this possible? To what extent are breadwinning identities and mothers' care for children barriers to men's engagement in caring? If mothering is a constitutive activity based on a response to the perceived needs of children, what does caring mean to fathers, and what is the impact of caring for children in the absence of maternal mediation? Based on evidence from an in depth qualitative study of fathers raising children alone, the study explores men's experience as primary carers for their children. Men's experience of paid employment, childcare and social and structural supports are examined, as is their experience of parenting and relationships with their children. Research into men's participation in childcare and domestic labour in two parent families demonstrates that women continue to do most childcare and unpaid domestic work, and there is significant difficulty in engaging men in care. The psychological literature has underpinned a 'deficiency' perspective of fatherhood, and casts doubt on men's capacity to care, while evidence from social policy research casts doubt on men's willingness to care. The policy response to women's labour market participation has been slow, leaving a gap in care. The findings of this study show how contemporary constructions of fatherhood impact on men's experiences. It will argue that, for men parenting alone, these constructions create a challenge to men's identities, which in turn creates tensions in men's perceptions of caring labour. However, these tensions do not need to be resolved in order for men to experience their parenting as positive, rather, the experience of doing care has the most significant impact on how men experience fatherhood, and having taken responsibility for care, fathers would be reluctant to relinquish it.

This thesis investigates debates and tensions in Second Wave Anglo-American Feminisms since the sixties. It interrogates claims that feminism is in crisis, and that the term 'feminism' itself is now semantically overburdened. Its chief purpose is to show that despite feminism's heterogeneity, there are central features of feminist politics which offer an oppositional identity to theorists concerned with exposing the way meanings of gender still shape society and academic discourse. The scope of this work extends from early Second Wave writings to current scholarly reflections on the interface between feminist and other critical theories. This study emphasizes that even the apparent 'anti-theory' thrust of early writers stand testimony to an abiding concern with theories of knowledge, power and representation. Even feminism's early antagonism to 'high theory' could be interpreted as a challenge to the means by which 'theory' is constructed. The first three chapters examine the emergence of a 'Second Wave' in feminist thought, and the various investments of its differing 'strands' in existing political and theoretical positions. Chapters Four and Five scrutinize what are deemed gaps or sites of conflict in Second Wave theory: theories of ideology, culture, sexuality and subjectivity. Feminism is arguably at its most radical and contentious where its methodology drifts furthest from the epistemological 'mainstream'. Chapter Six considers recent developments in feminist thought - many of which emerged during the writing of this work - illustrating a growing chasm between academic feminism and political feminism. The conclusion engages with critical discussions of feminism's alleged 'identity crisis', and the means by which feminist agendas are put to anti-feminist uses in face of a political swing to the Right in Britain and the USA. It suggests that the worst effects of a 'backlash' might be countered by greater attention to feminism's recent past. This is not to advocate nostalgia, but to indicate that feminism can learn from its past and present 'mistakes'. Recent questions are not new, but ones which merit ever more complex solutions, for the sake of feminism's survival as an autonomous and challenging philosophy.

This commentary outlines how my published works have contributed to knowledge on violence against black and minority ethnic (BME) or minority women in the UK, particularly in relation to domestic violence, forced marriage and so called 'honour' based violence (HBV). They help to define and enhance our understanding of these issues. In addition, they have critiqued multiculturalism and influenced, advocated and developed the former Home Office Minister, Mike O'Brien's concept of 'mature multiculturalism' (Parliamentary Debates, 1999; also cited in Home Office, 2000:10), and utilised the theoretical framework of intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989 and 1991) to address these problems. I have also located my works within the framework of violence against women and girls (VAWG), secularism, equalities and human rights. My publications have reflected upon and influenced policy, practice and research, and as such, contributed to documenting the history and achievements of black feminism.

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