In the 1990s nationally representative and detailed household survey data became available for the first time in South Africa, opening up opportunities to examine some of the key movements in the labour market especially. This thesis investigates one of these: the continued and dramatic rise in female labour force participation that has occurred in post-apartheid South Africa over the period 1995 to 2001. The rise in women's participation, also referred to as the 'feminisation' of the labour market, is a phenomenon that has been observed and analysed in many countries around the world, and yet has remained largely undocumented in South Africa. The 'feminisation' that has been recorded in the international literature generally refers to the rise in women's share of the labour force coupled with a rise in women's share of employment. What is striking in the South African case, however, is that over the period under review here regular employment opportunities in the formal sector of the economy have been indisputably limited, and yet female labour force participation has continued to increase. The increase in participation has translated mainly into a rise in unemployment and in generally low-paying forms of self-employment in the informal sector. This raises the question why so many more women chose to enter the labour market over this period in spite of their dismal prospects, a question that is explored as far as possible in this study given the constraints imposed by the data available. This thesis is presented in three main parts. The first part consists of a review of the economic theory of female labour supply and a review of the international literature on the trends, causes and consequences associated with the rise in female labour force participation over time. The second and largest part of the thesis consists of an empirical analysis of the factors driving the rise in female labour force participation in South Africa. The broad trends in the labour force between 1995 and 2001 are documented, some of the supply-side correlates of labour force participation are explored descriptively, and then the determinants of the rise in female labour force participation in South Africa over this period are tested more thoroughly in a multivariate regression and decomposition analysis. The final part of the study turns to the question of what the rise in female labour force participation has 'bought' women in terms of access to employment and earnings for those women who did have work in the period under review. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

The study focuses on job creation for the empowerment and development of women and assessed the role of State projects in the Umlaas Catchment area of the Working for Water Project in Kwazulu-Natal. The concepts of gender, households and rural development are defined from the socio-economic and geographical perspectives. A brief review of the aims of the Working for Water Project, which sets out to increase water yield through the clearing of invasive alien plants with the main objective of employing and training people from the disadvantaged communities in order to enhance their social upliftment and empowerment is presented. The data are collected from five stakeholders viz: the women employees, the contractors, the Project manager and the household members of the women employees of the working for Water Project as well as the community members from the six settlements in which the women employees are resident. In-depth interviews with the samples, which were tape-recorded, yielded a- rich database. The data are subjected to qualitative and quantitative analyses- to assess the extent to which job- creation enhances the empowerment and development of the women employees of the Project. The analyses entail the level of involvement of women in the management of the Project, capacity building and acquisition of skills through training, the effects of income in power relation at home and community and the socio-economic impacts of the project on the empowerment of the rural women in the study area. The analyses show that: (a) many of the women resort to work because of the pressing financial needs in their homes in order to alleviate the level of poverty. Also, the Working for Water Project has significantly helped the women employees to meet their financial obligations toward themselves, their children and members of their households. (b) more women than men are employed by the Working for Water Project in keeping to its objective. However, few women occupy management positions. The Project draws on a range of age groups with almost all the women employees less than 50 years of age. (c) some of the women employees of the Project have acquired skills from the organized training and as such are more confident to manage resources not only in their primary assignment but in their life situations. However, while the Project has helped some of the women employees to organize themselves in budgeting and making choices regarding their lives, some are still constrained by traditions. (d) the men seem to be happy that their women are working since there is no evidence to support that the men did not want the women to work neither did any of the women indicate that their men raised an opposition. Thereafter suggestions are offered to guide the policy makers and the Working for Water Project in achieving their set objectives of empowering and developing the rural women in order to stimulate a rapid transformation of the rural areas in South Africa. / Thesis (M.Dev.Studies)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 1991.

In 1900 Durban's white' society closely resembled its British counterpart. As in Britain an ideal of womanhood encompassed various generalisations concerning woman's true nature and purpose. Women were upheld as pure, chaste nurturers, and homemakers. In order that they might remain so fufil their destiny as wives and mothers, women were expected to remain in the private sphere, protected and supported by bread-winning husbands and fathers. Reality did not conform to the ideal Not all women were happy or satisfied by marriage and motherhood Large numbers of women were neither supported nor protected but forced to enter the public sphere, finding employment to secure a livelihood. They faced discrimination within an ideology which admitted them to the labour force under sufferance Women's work' was poorly paid, of low status and offered little opportunity for advancement. For these and other reasons some women became prostitutes . The prostitution issue was extremely controversial in the period under discussion. Ambiguities and contradictions inherent in the ideology of sexuality were revealed, as were various attempts to cope with these issues. Prostitutes were exploited sexually but this exploitation was at least lucrative. Continental womed probably earned more money in a year than a housewife, cleaner or factory 'drudge' ever saw in thei r lives . Many women therefore chose to go beyond the pale of society . Women resisted constraints placed upon them in a number of ways: they refused offers of marriage (supposedly their highest attainment); they left their husbands; they attempted to learn about and obtain forms of contraception, in direct opposition to the ideology of motherhood; they risked abortion despite the possibiIity of death, injury, prosecution or societal ostracism. Women attempted to improve their wages, working conditions and status. During the Great War' some of their ambi tions were real ised though most concessions gained were lost by 1920. Most of Durban women's organisations (all middle-class) accepted and were reflective of the ideals held by society. The Women's Enfranchisement League however, though working within the ideology of the time, challenged women's relegation to the private sphere. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1991.

The glass ceiling has been defined as a subtle, intangible yet impenetrable barrier that hinders the accession of women to senior management positions. Its manifestations are unique to every country and organisation. The theoretical framework of the glass ceiling has pointed to person and situation centred theories, social role, interaction and human capital theory to try and provide explanations to the origin of the glass ceiling. The main aim of the study was to determine whether the existence of the glass ceiling was a myth or reality. Purposive and snowball sampling were the sampling methods used in this study. The questionnaire that was administered using the web based Question pro elicited a total of 117 responses from 290 questionnaires that were circulated to respondents, resulting in a 40% response rate. Due to the sampling method that was used, results obtained could not be generalised to the entire population of female managers in the Durban Metropolitan Area. Salient findings that emerged from this study were that 54% of respondents were aged between 35-44 years and were married (69%). In addition, the majority of respondents were White (41%), were employed in the Private Sector (62%) and held middle management positions (47%). Critical to this study, respondents felt that the glass ceiling was still firmly in place as female representation at senior management was minimal (86%). Some of the barriers to the upward career mobility of respondents were reluctance to relocate (48%), need to overachieve (52%) and consistently exceeding performance (64%). In addition, critical career mobility success factors were that respondents needed to be leaders geared towards high achievement (94%), be competitive and ambitious (90%), be confident and exhibit emotional suitability to hold senior management positions (84%), have a track record (77%), receive organisational support to balance their multiple roles (59%) and have a willingness to relocate (41%). For the ceiling to crack, it is essential for organisations‟ on one hand to commit to creating environments supportive of the roles of women (flexi time, work from home days, mentor staff) and women on the other hand need to have the desire to persevere and have faith in their abilities, cultivate their own leadership style, network and further their own education. / Thesis (MBA)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

This dissertation focuses on indirect discrimination against women in employment. It briefly examines the causes of discrimination against women in the workplace. Further it explains the concept of indirect discrimination by tracing its origins in the United States of America and analyses the development of the law of indirect discrimination in the United States until the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1991. This analysis involves an examination of the elements involved in proving an indirect discrimination claim and the problems experienced in doing so. The British indirect discrimination laws and cases are then examined to the extent to which Britain deviates from the American approach. The comparative law discussion will indicate the problems that have become an inherent feature of indirect discrimination cases. The problematic nature of proving indirect discrimination necessitates a discussion of the common types of conditions and requirements that indirectly discriminate against women. It is against this background that the present South African legislation on indirect discrimination in employment is analysed and case developments reviewed. Finally, the proposals of the Green Paper on Employment Equity are examined. The recommendations for the introduction of a comprehensive discrimination statute; the introduction of an independent commission; and the formulation of a Code of Good Practice that will provide guidelines to employers, are supported. Further, recommendations are made for a flexible discrimination legislation that provides a broad legal framework which allows for development of the law; the necessity to address issues regarding administration and costs involved in implementing this legislation; the introduction of additional funtions of the independent commission relating to training and access to the law; and the adoption of a statutorily enforced affirmative action policy that addresses the inequalities faced by women in employment. / Thesis (LL.M.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1998.

This thesis, from a "locality studies" perspective, examines the impact of industrial restructuring and employment decline on the relationship between locality, gender and patriarchy at the household level in Windsor, a pulp and paper mill town in South-Eastern Quebec. A detailed questionnaire/survey was deployed in May and June 1987, during a period of massive reorganization and automation of production by Domtar Fine Paper Mill, the dominant local employer. The primary empirical focus of this work is on the household impacts of job losses, incurred directly or indirectly by this restructuring. Particular attention is paid to the relationship between gender, employment and income and how this relationship is manifested among the differing material circumstances of Windsor households, and to attempts to adapt to the socio-economic impacts of restructuring via self-conscious "coping strategies". A secondary focus is communal coping strategies aimed at combatting declining industrial employment. Findings indicate an exacerbation of economic polarization between economically stable households of the remaining Domtar employees and households enmeshed in unstable economic and employment conditions.

Previous research has shown that although women outnumber men in public relations, women hold inferior positions, are paid less, and possess less credibility in their organization.Gender and roles in public relations has become a common focus of research for the public relations scholar; however, very few studies have used Q-methodology to gauge attitudes on this subject.Using Q-methodology, 21 public relations practitioners from a variety of organizations in 3 states were asked to sort 48 statements concerning attitudes about gender and roles in the field. Two factors emerged from the results and were labeled: Initiators and Generalists.Results indicated gender was no longer a factor in what roles the practitioner played and roles in public relations were blurring. It suggests further research should focus on differences between generalists and specialists rather than managers and technicians. / Department of Journalism

The purposes of the study were: (1) to determine, for the period from 1968-69 to 1973-74, the number of women who annually apply to, are admitted to, and complete specialist or doctorate degree programs in educational administration at selected midwestern universities, and (2) to determine the types of positions secured by women who completed the specialist or doctorate degree or who left the doctorate degree program prior to completion.Data were obtained through the use of a questionnaire sent to departments of educational administration at twenty-four selected midwestern universities. Sixteen chairpersons reported on specialist degree programs and fourteen reported on doctorate degree programs.Findings reported in the study during the period from 1968-69 to 1973-74 were:1. Totally, at least forty-nine women applied for, at least 264 women were admitted to, and at least forty-eight women completed the specialist degree program. Because application and admission are continuing processes the number of women who were admitted is greater than the number of women who applied.2. Totally, at least 349 women applied for, at least 353 women were admitted to, and at least eighty-four women completed the doctorate degree program.3. The annual total number of women who applied for, were admitted to, and completed either the specialistist or doctorate degree program tended to increase from 1968-69 to 1973-74. The greatest annual number of women at each stage of their degree program was reported in 1973-74.4. Of the positions reported by twenty-eight women who had completed the specialist degree, nine were elementary principals, four were assistant superintendents and four were teachers.5. Of the positions reported by fifty women who had completed the doctorate degree, fourteen were assistant professors, nine were educational consultants and seven were elementary principals.6. One woman was reported to be a faculty member of those departments of educational administration which participated in the study.The following conclusions are based upon the findings of the study:1. The number of females seeking admission to, being admitted to and completing specialist or doctorate degree programs in educational administration at selected midwestern universities is increasing annually.2. Women who have completed the specialist or doctorate degree in educational administration at selected midwestern universities are more likely to find employment as an elementary principal than any other position.3. Women are not proportionately represented as members of faculty of the department of educational administration at selected midwestern universities.4. There is a proportionate underpresentation of women who have received specialist or doctorate degrees in educational administration from selected midwestern universities and who hold higher-level positions in educational administration (superintendent in public schools; dean in a college or university).

This thesis is about the origins and implementation of the Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act in Britain. For historical and methodological reasons the subject is treated comparatively with similar American policies. British policy makers looked to the United States as an exemplar in this field. The thesis discusses one theory about innovation which predicts such a process. Accounts of policy formation and implementation are used as a method of comparing the general political processes of the two countries. The first chapter introduces ideas about the study of policy and the pattern and timing of policy innovations. It also refers to early moves in the emancipation of women in Britain and America. Part I is about the origins of laws promoting equality of opportunity for working women. It deals with the problems the legislation was supposed to solve, the growth of interest in economic as well as political emancipation and with the actual provisions of the new laws. The emphasis is on Britain to which three chapters are devoted. Similar trends and events in America are dealt with more briefly in a single chapter. Part II discusses implementation in both countries, stressing the essentially political aspects of this process. That is to say, Chapters VI and VII consider the activities of the principle administrative agencies and departments and the courts. The concluding chapter compares the different approaches of American and British institutions promoting equality in the light of variations in more general aspects of politics. Thus it attempts to contribute to the discipline of comparative politics.