The prevalence and the incidence are two primary epidemiological parameters in infectious disease modelling. The incidence is also closely related to the force of infection or the hazard of infection in survival analysis terms. The two measures carry the same information about a disease because they measure the rate at which new infections occur. The disease prevalence gives the proportion of infected individuals in the population at a given time, while the incidence is the rate of new infections. The thesis discusses methods for estimating HIV prevalence, incidence rates and the force of infection, against age and time, using cross-sectional seroprevalence data for pregnant women attending antenatal clinics. The data was collected on women aged 12 to 47 in rural KwaZulu-Natal for each of the years 2001 to 2006. The generalized linear model for binomial response is used extensively. First the logistic regression model is used to estimate annual HIV prevalence by age. It was found that the estimated prevalence for each year increases with age, to peaks of between 36% and 57% in the mid to late twenties, before declining steadily toward the forties. Fitted prevalence for 2001 is lower than for the other years across all ages. Several models for estimating the force of infection are discussed and applied. The fitted force of infection rises with age to a peak of 0.074 at age 15, and then decreases toward higher ages. The force of infection measures the potential risk of infection per individual per unit time. A proportional hazards model of the age to infection is applied to the data, and shows that additional variables such as partner’s age and the number of previous pregnancies do have a significant effect on the infection hazard. Studies for estimating incidence from multiple prevalence surveys are reviewed. The relative inclusion rate (RIR), accounting for the fact that the probability of inclusion in a prevalence sample depends on the individual’s HIV status, and its role in incidence estimation is discussed as a possible future approach of extending the current work. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

This study argues that literary and womanist perspectives on the book of. Esther can be used as resources for gender-social transformation in the South African Indian Pentecostal community. It maintains that Biblical scholarship cannot be confined only to the academy, while the Bible is used in the community to oppress women. When culture and interpretation both collude in the oppression of women, putting their lives at risk, it is imperative, this study argues, for those working in the field of liberation hermeneutics to not restrict their work to the academy. Hence, this study seeks to find ways to read the Bible in ways that liberate rather than oppress. The dissertation is divided into two sections. An examination of the ways in which ideology, plot, narrative time and characterization elucidate the theme of power in the narrative of Esther, form the first section of the dissertation. Each chapter of the first section focuses on the literary details of the text, but always with a hermeneutic of transformation in mind. In the second section, an analysis of how these critical interpretations contribute to the process of gender-social transformation is undertaken. This is done through a process of an analysis of a series of Bible studies conducted by the author with South African Indian Pentecostal women from the Durban area. Issues of representation and the scholar's role in the process of the transformation and conscientization of the community are also examined in this second section. The conclusion is a reflection of the implications of this study both to the academy and to the community. It reiterates that the collaboration between scholars and the community is a vital one, and the challenge that remains is for more organic intellectuals to use the opportunities which they have been given through their privileged access to education, to empower those in the community who have afforded them the opportunity. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003. / The National Research Foundation (NRF) and The Eastern Seaboard of Tertiary Institutions (ESATI).

This paper argues that a contextual version of Bernard Huss' model of "Better homes, Better fields, Better hearts" can make a positive contribution to poverty alleviation in rural KwaZulu-Natal. The model addresses both the material and non-material aspects of poverty. It seeks to achieve integral human development by empowering the poor, especially women, to be self-reliant. Poverty eradication remains one of the greatest challenges facing South Africa, and analysts concur that it is largely a rural problem. Women who head the majority of rural households are the most affected by poverty which also exposes them to the risk of HIV infection and sexual violence due to their economic dependence on men. Gender equality is a critical aspect which the model seeks to address in order to counter particular cultural injustices which subject the majority of women to male subordination. The model is therefore interpreted in the context of poverty and underdevelopment in rural KwaZulu-Natal and it endeavours to confront the challenges of poverty and unemployment at the grassroots level. It is argued in this paper that women should become the main beneficiaries of the contextual version of the model and begin to participate fully in decision-making in respect of the strategies to alleviate poverty in rural areas. The model recognizes the agency of the poor as an imperative factor in the development praxis and discourse, for this reason it is a pro-poor approach. It is also argued in this paper that the Missionaries of Mariannhill should revive the model and use it in their mission work in rural communities of KwaZulu-Natal. The model has the capacity to broaden the scope of mission work and address both the material and non-material aspects of poverty. It provides a practical response to the Christian commitment to assist the poor in the endeavour to alleviate poverty and mitigate the impact of the HIV and AIDS epidemic in rural communities. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Poverty is caused by inadequate income. Effective assistance to small-scale enterprises may benefit the urban and rural poor. Small enterprises have the potential to create employment, reduce poverty and support sustainable livelihoods, as small enterprises satisfy local needs, provide employment opportunities in local areas, increase income, ensure food security and improve health. The Department of Land Affairs has recently introduced policies such the Land Reform Policy to correct the injustices of South Africa’s past. During 2005, the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs introduced the Agrarian Revolution Programme, in an effort to close the gap between the first and second economy. The Agrarian Revolution and the LRAD programmes encourage agribusinesses through the formation of co-operatives or trusts. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential of an envisaged processing enterprise with a group of women from an LRAD project, within the Engadini Community Trust. An action research methodology was followed. A training manual was developed and training conducted with the Engadini women’s group through which they prepared a business plan, developed prototype products; conducted market research; estimated prices for the products and developed a marketing plan. The study results indicate that the group would have the technical skills to make a good quality product. The group is likely to face problems ensuring a sustainable supply of raw materials as the current supply of milk would hardly be sufficient to supply the target market sampled during the consumer survey. The success of the dairy processing enterprises depends heavily on the ability of the Engadini Trust to overcome internal social problems. Conflict between the Engadini dairy processing enterprise members and conflict within the larger Engadini Community Trust had a crippling effect on the dairy processing enterprise. The main recommendations for the group are that the group needs to secure a sustainable supply or fresh milk. A dairy processing facility that will meet food safety standards needs to be erected for the enterprise. The location of the dairy processing enterprise needs to be re-considered. To overcome internal conflict within the group, the women’s group needs to gain representation on the Engadini Community Trust’s Executive Committee, to ensure that the dairy processing enterprise interests are considered by the Trust. The main recommendations for small-scale enterprises are that they should ensure to have sustainable supply of good-quality raw materials and a reliable, sustainable market, even if the market is relatively small. Policy recommendations are that Government Departments such as the KwaZulu-Natal Departments of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs and Economic Development should consider adapting policies that will focus on funding individual enterprises, rather than group enterprises. A directorate or sub-directorate dedicated to the development of small and medium sized food processing enterprises should be created. The marketing section of the KwaZulu- Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs should provide marketing information for small-scale food processing enterprises available to extension officers and small-scale enterprises.

Relationships between „madams‟ and „maids‟ have been the subject of various South African works, detailing the lives of domestic workers and their daily struggles. This study however aims to turn the focus on the madam and questions the complex intimacy at work between her and her maid. It is this intricate association between „madam‟ and „maid,‟ as well as the context of the home, which creates a site for a unique personal relationship that extends beyond the constraints of the working contract. In order to investigate this relationship, I explore the preconceived notions Muslim madams of North Beach have when recruiting the ideal domestic worker as well as the way everyday life between madams and maids shapes their relationship. In demonstrating the types of relationships and levels of intimacy between them, this thesis focuses on three aspects of everyday life between Muslim madams and maid. Firstly, I explore the „home‟ as a contradictory location – being both a private space for the employer and a workspace for the maid, paying particular attention to the creation of boundaries and negotiations of space within the home. The second key aspect I examine is the extent to which religion influences the relationship between madam and maid. Religion is a thread running through this thesis as a determining factor in the recruitment of a domestic worker and a way in which space is produced. Thirdly, I discuss the sharing of gender between madam and maid and the question of „sisterhood‟ between them. These are underlying elements of the types of relationships between madam and maid which, I argue are characterised by levels of cultivated intimacy. The project is based on the qualitative results gathered from 20 in-depth interviews with Muslim madams, two focus groups and five key informant interviews with domestic workers. My thesis contributes to the existing research exploring the relationships between madams and maids and opens further avenues for research. It demonstrates that there are key elements besides race and class that shape the relationships between madam and maid, which contribute to levels of cultivated intimacy between them. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sci.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

The following dissertation examines skills development for women at the poorer ends of the informal economy through a study of members of the Self-Employed Women's Union (SEWU) who were trained in blockmaking in 1996. Since that time, the women have established the microenterprise, Vezi Khono (meaning 'Show the Skills' in Zulu) in the rural area of Ndwedwe in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. The dissertation explores the impact this training has had on incomes in the short and medium term, the opposition the women faced and the ability of training to overcome such obstacles, the role of government in skills development strategies, and concludes with ways in which skills development can be improved to better meet the needs women in the informal economy in establishing more sustainable enterprises. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2000.

In the 1950s, apartheid policies in the Natal countryside served to oppress the majority of African women more than they had ever been before. Yet ironically, it was their being 'left behind' by the system of migrant labour that goaded them into taking overt action against their condition in 1959. The aim of this mini-dissertation is to trace and explain their struggle against "grand apartheid". These women were a force to be reckoned with, and the government of the day felt temporarily threatened by their actions. This study vehemently rejects the misconception that the African women of the rural areas of Natal were docile, slave-like individuals, who placidly accepted their position. The protest marches in the 1950's, more especially 1959, proved African women to be strong-willed and determined to succeed against all odds. These women emerge as anything but placid and docile. History has shown us that women's oppression is not simply a matter of equal rights or discrimination under the law. African women struggled to be recognised as human beings, no different from any other race. In the early 1950's African women, in most parts of South Africa, became more politically active. They played a significant role in the 1952 Defiance Campaign. Shortly after that a "Women's Charter" was adopted. It sought the liberation of all people, the common society of men and women. It took women like Lilian Ngoyi, who made history in 1956 by leading 20 000 women to the Union Buildings in Pretoria in protest against passes for women, to ignite rolling mass action in the various Provinces. This thesis tells of the contemporary struggle of African women in the 1950's, more especially 1959, in Natal. This is a tribute to the countless African women who have made courageous sacrifices in order for change. It is through their radical and somewhat aggressive stance that we have a lot to be thankful for today. We must be mindful of the fact that in the Apartheid era the law itself was used to oppress people. In our new-found democracy it is pleasing to note that the law is somewhat gender sensitive, so that it does not discriminate against men or women in its application. Many of us who research African women are mere observers, who digest what we read, hear and see. Many of us do not understand the complex African way of life. We tend to employ Eurocentric theories and assumptions, which instead serve as a handicap. Thus the African woman is seen as a victim of the African male, and of traditional customs and practices. We fail to see that African women did from the outset, have varying degrees of economic independence, and that colonialism was responsible for depriving African women of their political as well as economic status. These women can claim a degree of triumph in that in the wake of the mass protest action, it took the government years to implement its policy of passes for women. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1999.

The impact of morbidity and mortality on women’s coping strategies has not been explored or documented in South Africa. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to investigate the influence of morbidity and mortality on coping strategies among 10 community vegetable garden clubs representing 79 households in the Maphephetheni uplands, rural KwaZulu-Natal. An innovative mix of qualitative and quantitative methodologies was used to determine the impacts of morbidity and mortality on women’s coping strategies. Qualitative research methodologies included group sustainable livelihoods analyses. Quantitative methodologies included three annual household surveys conducted between 2003 and 2005. The coping strategy index was also used to determine the levels of food insecurity and understand how morbidity and mortality compromised the coping ability of participating households. The coping strategy index has not been previously used in assessing the impact of morbidity and mortality on coping strategies. Chi-Square tests, Pearson correlation, paired-sample t-tests, and frequency and descriptive statistics were applied to analyse data. The study found that the key contribution of women in community gardening and non-farm activities was compromised by the burden of morbidity and mortality that had negative effects on women’s coping strategies. Findings indicated that the frequency of illness among garden club and household members increased between 2003 (21.2% of household members) and 2004 (25%). Similarly, more households (42% of the sample households) experienced a death in 2004 compared to 7.6 percent of households in 2003. As a result, costs associated with health care and funerals were significantly (P = 0.01) lower in 2003 than in 2004. Most garden club and household members relied on subsidised medication to treat illness. Number of households dependent on subsidised medication dropped from 86 percent of households in 2003 to 66.7 percent in 2004. In 2004, households reported purchasing medication in addition to subsidised medication. Caring for the sick and contributions to household chores were significantly (P = 0.01) correlated in 2003 and 2004. This means that increased caring for sick members resulted in increased workloads for women. Caring for the sick and engagement in community garden activities were significantly (P = 0.01) correlated in both 2003 and 2004, suggesting that caring for the sick reduced participation in community gardens. Analysis showed that reduced labour supply due to increased incidences of sickness and deaths, increased health care and funeral costs, reduced household income and increased care-giving minimised women’s ability to cope with adverse situations. Women used erosive coping strategies such as borrowing money, selling assets, limiting portion sizes at meal times and relying on less preferred and less expensive foods to cushion the effects of morbidity and mortality. Application of erosive coping strategies minimises household resilience to future shocks and stresses. Findings showed that farm and non-farm livelihood activities were critical components of rural livelihoods in Maphephetheni because sample households depended on community gardens, home gardens and small-scale non-farm enterprises for food and income to cushion the negative effects of morbidity and mortality. Community gardening contributed less to total monthly household income (4% of total monthly household income) than wages (41%), social grants (40.9%), home gardens (7%), small-scale enterprises (4.2%) and remittances (2.9%). Even though low, the contribution of community gardens to food security cannot be ignored considering the number of households (about 32% of sample households) that depended upon subsistence agriculture for food. Further analysis indicated that community gardens were themselves a coping strategy in the face of morbidity and mortality. Community gardens provided a risk aversion strategy and minimised risk by providing food resources and social and moral support for households facing hardship. Strategies to enhance household asset bases and promote more productive farm and non-farm activities are needed to improve resilience against the effects of morbidity and mortality. Government and non-governmental organisations need to establish a multi-purpose centre where women can learn agricultural and entrepreneurial skills to help households cope more effectively with shocks and stresses. However, such strategies should ensure that tasks allocated to various activities such as community gardening, non-farm activities and household chores such as fuel and water collection should be distributed equally across household members so that women do not carry excessive workloads since increased workloads reduce women’s ability to respond to livelihood insecurity shocks and stresses. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Women play a major role in development especially with the increasing numbers of female headed households in Africa. Today more than ever, the poor, the majority of whom are women, face the challenge of creating new survival mechanisms within their communities. One of these mechanisms that the rural women of Maphephethe, (like their counter parts in other parts of Africa) have created is the formation of welfare groups which undertake various activities for income generation. This is to enable the women to meet their basic needs. However success of these groups depends on various factors such as access to assets. Women by virtue of their gender lack access to assets and they operate within structures of inequality which discriminate and deny them equal opportunities to participate in development. Maphephethe is located in the rural KwaZulu-Natal midlands, in the Ndwedwe district. The area like many parts of rural KwaZulu-Natal is characterised by poor social and physical infrastructure. The purpose of this study was to investigate the contribution of assets, group management, constraints, benefits and community support to the success of Maphephethe women's groups. The study therefore looked at how the groups functioned, the constraints faced, the benefits derived from group participation and the way the community perceived these groups. All these factors were looked at in relation to success. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies were used for this study. These were observation, focus groups, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques, de Wet Schutte P-Index, semi-structured interviews and in-depth interviews with key informants who were leaders of the groups. The study found that successful groups were of mixed gender, accessed more assets, undertook more activities and functioned better. These groups also had higher education levels than those which were less successful and were also perceived more favourably by the outsiders. Education and asset access were crucial factors to the success of women's groups. The members of successful groups were more committed, had a higher sense of belonging and realised more income from their groups. This study summed up crucial factors for success of women's groups as access to assets, diversified activities, high education levels, good management, committed members, community support, networking, and realisation of incomes by group members. The ability of the rural women's groups to participate effectively in their development activities is constrained by illiteracy (which results to poor management) and other factors such as lack of capital and information. In view of the constraints, it is recommended that development agencies create links with these groups to understand the effects of their collective action in the area. There is a dire need for capital to improve the women's activities, training of all the group members on issues ranging from group dynamics, basic education and skills. Literacy training could be combined with income generating activities. Development efforts need to begin by taking full stock of women's perceived claims, goals, motivations, constraints and resources they identify in their context / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

This study is about refugee women from the Great Lakes Region, who are living in Pietermaritzburg and face many challenges that contribute to their vulnerability to HIV and AIDS. These include the challenges of language barriers, lack of communication, gender based violence, and other socio-economic problems. This dissertation seeks to investigate critically some of the gender-based challenges that the refugee women from Great Lakes Region face in Pietermaritzburg which can make them vulnerable to HIV and AIDS. Though there is much literature written on the challenges of women refugees in Africa, there is not much written on the challenges of refugee women who live in cities. This study was involved to eight women and two male church leaders of the French-Swahili church in Pietermaritzburg where these refugee women fellowship. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.