1950年韓戰爆發，美國因應遠東國際局勢的變遷，為了防堵中國勢力，才轉而提供台灣援助。這些援助多數用於軍事防衛與經濟建設發展，後來才慢慢用於衛生實務上。在瘧疾防治方面，台灣獲得美援充裕資金，奠定穩固的基礎。只是，更不可忽視世界衛生組織專家之專業技能與全球撲瘧計畫在台灣的落實。 1950年，台灣宣布退出世界衛生組織，幸賴該組織沒有嚴格的退會規定，以及劉瑞恆、顏春輝與西太平洋區署署長方頤積的私人情誼，得以於1951年簽下《瘧疾防治協定》，與世界衛生組織開啟四年撲滅瘧蚊的合作。儘管在此之前，世界衛生組織已經在全球許多國家試驗DDT之效能，1952年5月世界衛生組織三位瘧疾專家來到台灣，仍然從瘧疾、昆蟲學、衛生工程的專業知識，予以全盤的考察，終以矮小黑蚊為傳染媒介，掌握矮小瘧蚊習性與活動範圍，從家屋環境歸納DDT噴射效能，以及針對交通狀況、DDT噴射器具、各項人力進行評估等等。這些考察與評估，在7月「先驅計畫」試行，漸次歸納噴射區較未噴射區瘧蚊數量銳減、全部噴射與重點噴射效果相當，噴射隊組織以1-4-2模式能夠發揮最佳效能等。1953年起，瘧疾研究所同仁與國際瘧疾專家共同擴大訓練全島人員DDT噴射技術訓練，以及傳授地方人士瘧疾與瘧蚊知識等，在各界的配合下，大規模DDT家屋噴射作業得以順利啟動。1954年、1955年，台灣大抵也是在這種國際衛生合作的形式上，擴大家屋噴射的規模。其間，瘧疾研究所也適時調整方法，動員全省各界撲瘧人員，加上世界衛生組織專家的協助，撲滅瘧蚊的成果豐碩。1953年，世界衛生組織為了提供一個亞洲瘧疾知識能夠交流的平台，在曼谷召開的首屆亞洲撲瘧會議。台灣派員參加，也讓會員國掌握台灣撲瘧動態。翌年，台灣原本主辦第二屆亞洲瘧疾會議，卻因九三砲戰引發第一次台海危機，致使第二屆亞洲會議改在菲律賓召開。會後，各國瘧疾專家與世界衛生組織顧問也蒞臨台灣實地考察，讚賞台灣撲瘧工作之努力，更欽羨高雄化學廠已能夠生產出符合國際水準的DDT。從此時開始，台灣更成為亞洲地區防瘧作業的前哨站，許多亞洲會員國透過世界衛生組織的協助，紛紛將撲瘧人員送至台灣接受訓練、考察。往後，這些來到台灣的受訓人員，必定將台灣經驗移植本國。 1955年，原本台灣與世界衛生組織之四年防瘧合作將屆，轉因世界衛生組織的全球瘧疾根除計畫，使得兩者間之瘧疾防治工作，得以延續。從1955年起，台灣瘧疾防治工作目標，不再是簡單的將瘧疾壓低至某種程度，而是順應著世界衛生組織的標準範本，必須歷經「準備期」、「攻擊期」、「肅清期」、「保全期」，以完成全球瘧疾根除之目標。1955年，當全球50多個國家接受世界衛生組織的援助，開始準備進行防瘧工作時，台灣在先前的努力與累積的成果上，未從頭執行所謂的「準備期」，而是延展二年DDT家屋噴射工作，進入「攻擊期」的尾段。必須要釐清的是，以往公共衛生專著中所論及之戰後台灣對抗瘧疾奮鬥歷程中，經歷過所謂的「準備期」、「攻擊期」、「肅清期」、「保全期」，其實這是移植世界衛生組織全球瘧疾根除計畫而來的，並非台灣獨有的特徵。換言之，每一個參與瘧疾根除計畫的會員國，必須按照這一套標準作業流程，歷經諸多考驗，根除瘧疾，免於苦痛。只是，當瘧疾防治的目標，從控制走向根除時，在工作層面上似乎更趨複雜了。原本，瘧疾控制只需要將瘧蚊撲滅到最低的程度，切斷傳染途徑，避免大規模感染即可。但是，世界衛生組織掌握瘧蚊是無法全數撲滅的，因此瘧疾根除必須透過「肅清期」將瘧蚊削減至最低程度，接下來必須進行「肅清期」，也就是透過衛生行政機構之監視方法，找尋瘧疾患者，投藥治療，殲滅瘧原蟲。一旦傳染源被消滅了，瘧蚊對人類即無所威脅。 當初，世界衛生組織對這一套放諸四海皆準的瘧疾根除計畫深具信心，只要會員國按照的「準備期」、「攻擊期」、「肅清期」、「保全期」這套標準化流程循序漸進，那麼全球瘧疾根除之目標指日可待。惟會員國社會經濟條件不一，或因DDT噴射工作未完全執行，或缺乏有效領導撲滅瘧疾之工作單位，更甚者，或疏忽了瘧患監視作業，以及瘧蚊出現抗藥性等等，導致許多國家瘧疾復發，日益嚴重。這些情況，迫使世界衛生組織不得不於1969年對外宣告全球瘧疾根除計畫的失敗，修正防治的方法，改以控制瘧疾為主。至今，世界衛生組織仍試圖歸納最佳的防瘧方法，持續為全球瘧疾防治而努力，這種推展國際衛生合作之精神，深值敬佩。 1965年，台灣根除瘧疾的背後，始於全國團結一致與國際力量的援助，得以順利進行DDT噴射作業，可以說，台灣能夠成功對抗瘧疾，實奠基於「攻擊期」的努力。不過，與世界衛生組織合作的許多會員國中，完成DDT噴射作業的國家很多，雖奠定良好的防瘧根基，卻始終無法達到瘧疾根除的境界，錫蘭便是最明顯的例子。錫蘭之所以失敗，便是輕忽「肅清期」的監視作業。其實，台灣在「肅清期」、「保全期」中，也如錫蘭與其他國家般遭遇許多困難與挫折，實非外界想像般的平順。台灣也曾忽視瘧疾的監控，導致爆發小型群體感染病例，掀起瘧疾傳染危機。幸運的是，台灣每逢危機，便能透過世界衛生組織的協助，強化各項監視方法，同時觀察其他國家的經驗而有警覺性，得以化險為夷，成為全球瘧疾根除的模範。 世界衛生組織是聯合國的專門機構之一，除了依照《四年防瘧協定》援助台灣本島開展防瘧實務外，也因應聯合國國際合作的精神，提供台灣獎補金讓瘧疾研究所的同仁們赴外進修學業，前往全球聞名醫學中心研究，以及遠赴各國考察瘧疾流行情況，以茲與台灣比較。世界衛生組織為了提升各國瘧疾知識和防瘧技能，更多次召開亞洲瘧疾會議，讓與會的國家代表透過會議了解各國撲瘧實況，並且進行知識上的交流。更重要的是，台灣出席這些會議的代表回國之後，能將全球最前沿的知識分享國內，提升整體知識水平。世界衛生組織在菲律賓馬尼拉設立國際瘧疾訓練中心，台灣與周邊國家瘧疾人才紛紛前往接受訓練，裨益各國瘧疾防治工作的推展。難能可貴的是，台灣在接受世界衛生組織的援助之餘，協助其他國家訓練撲瘧人力，甚至提供防瘧物資、器材給與他國，另外，台灣在瘧疾防治過程中，並未獨善其身。台灣瘧疾研究所很多專門人員奮鬥有成，前後應邀擔任世界衛生組織的專家顧問，前往世界各地協助很多國家抵禦瘧疾，實質的開拓台灣醫療外交之路。可惜，隨著1971年台灣退出聯合國，與翌年退出世界衛生組織後，也漸漸的中斷台灣瘧疾專家開拓醫療外交實業。直至2000年，曾經服務瘧疾研究所的連日清先生，多次前往聖多美普林西比民主共和國，協助該國防治瘧疾有成，成功為台灣開拓「蚊子外交」，不僅贏得該國的讚賞，更因此獲得聖多美普林西比民主共和國在聯合國大會為台灣發聲，爭取拓展國際關係的機會。

In international relations, ¡§Foreign Aid¡¨ is a perfect tool to perform the diplomatic policy of a country. In the aspect of theory discussion, the development of foreign aid theory exists the arguments about idealism and realism. The idealist estimates the foreign aid policy according to humanism and moral standards, but the realist emphasizes the key point to provide foreign aid or not according to the benefit of nation. Since 1970, in order to get the identification, support, and the authority of the third world nations, and to compress the international society existence of Taiwan, the Communist Party of China uses plenty of economic aids as the tool to pursue their diplomatic objectives. In the post cold war era, the diplomacy competition for the third world nations between Taiwan and the Communist Party of China is more violent than ever. This situation can be known by the facts that the Communist Party of China had tried to join the United Nations vigorously before 1971 and that Taiwan is also more vigorous to return to the United Nations and to join the World Health Organization. No matter to return or to join the United Nations, Taiwan and the Communist Party of China both need more affirmative votes of the third world nations in the United Nations General Assembly to achieve their objectives. So, in the diplomacy competition of both sides of strait, Taiwan and the Communist Party of China need more support of the third world nations. Relatively, both sides of strait in order to get the identification of the third world nations both use foreign aid to draw an outsider to one¡¦s side and to establish diplomatic relations. That Taiwan and the Communist Party of China both use the influences of nations with foreign relation to generate the mutually beneficial and subtle interactive relations is worth to be observed and discussed.

In this project, I am interrogating discourse surrounding the 2008 WHO/UNAIDS controversy, which both preceded and followed the publication of an article in the U.K. newspaper The Independent. The article reported that the head of the World Health Organization’s HIV/AIDS initiative admitted that the threat of an AIDS pandemic among heterosexuals was “officially” over. These texts are particularly important for such an endeavor because, as I will argue below, the controversy enables both “AIDS” and “heterosexuality” to operate as floating signifiers whose meanings are contested in public discourse in ways that ultimately reinforce heterosexual privilege and under-attention to the AIDS crisis. In the end, the destabilization of the meaning of HIV/AIDS does not serve emancipatory ends. Although the destabilization of meaning is the emancipatory gesture ‘par excellence’ for the poststructuralist tradition, my investigation shows that the destabilization of meaning in the WHO controversy actually results in the reification of master narratives. / text

This dissertation has been motivated by the prolonged deficiency of access to advanced regimens of Antiretroviral drugs(ARVs) and efficient health services by people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in Zambia, a least developed Member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Zambia‘s reality of dire provision of health services particularly essential medicines persists despite the urgent need for sustainable access to ARV drugs in poor African countries worst affected by HIV/AIDS, having been accentuated in the international declaration on Trade Related Aspects on Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and Public Health. Furthermore, under international human rights law of treaties, access to medicines including ARV drugs, has been recognised as a core component of the right to health and or life which needs to be progressively realised by governments, even in the advent of globalisation of domestic health services including provision of medicines. Whilst the Zambian government has highlighted lack of funds as the foremost impediment to efficient supply of health services particularly essential medicines. Conversely the WTO has pronounced lack of legal adoption of a plethora of flexibilities envisaged in its relevant international agreements by most poor Members, as the foremost impediment to fostering efficient public health service delivery including access to ARV drugs and therapy for PLWHA. Thus to assist in ascertaining whether the issue of deficient access to ARV drugs as a health service is as a result of legal unpreparedness in poor countries specifically Zambia; or whether it is due to provisions in the WTO trade agreements that foster globalisation of health services through liberalised trade in services and pharmaceutical patent protection of essential drugs. This dissertation will analyse the WTO‘s multilateral trade agreements and their legal impact on access to ARV drugs as a health service and a human right to health in Zambia. The foregoing analysis will be conducted through a desk review of literature on the subject, making use of paper and electronic sources. / Thesis (LL.M.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

The following paper explores the rise of global biopolitics by focusing on the League of Nations Health Organization (LNHO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) as pivot points around which an international system transitioned into a global system. The central thesis of the paper is that the LNHO served as the first true site of deployment for global discourses on health and hygiene, not as recent scholarship has suggested, the WHO. The purpose of the paper, however, is to provide an overview of the larger transformation of public health in the twentieth century, beginning with the proliferation of nineteenth-­‐century international health organizations and culminating in the WHO. Central to this argument is the belief that population control is the ultimate end of the modern state, firmly placing discourses on health and hygiene at the nexus of modern politics. At its heart, this paper is about the nature of the modern state in relation to an increasingly global world.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Western Sydney, 2007. / A thesis presented to the University of Western Sydney, College of Arts, Social Justice and Social Change Research Centre in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Social Policy). Includes bibliographies.

Thesis (M.P.H.)--Georgia State University, 2008. / Title from file title page. Frances McCarty, committee chair; Derek G. Shendell, co-chair; Ike S Okosun, committee member. Electronic text (140 p. : col. ill., col. maps) : digital, PDF file. Description based on contents viewed July 15, 2008. Includes bibliographical references (p. 103-108).

Thesis (doctoral)--University College London, 1996. / BLDSC reference no.: DX223936.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:28:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2012-04-25Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:26:32Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 castro_jf_me_arafcl.pdf: 985996 bytes, checksum: 8315689cc09f48acc433e1177b86d222 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O presente trabalho discute a influência do regime de patentes estabelecido internacionalmente, sobre o problema das doenças denominadas “negligenciadas”, que recebem esta designação por não despertarem interesse da indústria farmacêutica privada para o desenvolvimento de novos medicamentos, pois vitimam principalmente as populações dos países pobres ou em desenvolvimento localizados na região tropical. Esse regime de patentes também dificulta os objetivos dos programas públicos de produção e distribuição de medicamentos, que visam atender às camadas mais pobres da população, necessitadas destes e sem condições próprias de adquiri-los. Para se ter uma melhor compreensão deste contexto foi analisado, principalmente, o acordo TRIPS (Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) que regulamenta o atual regime de patentes em nível internacional, considerando a postura da Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS) e dos governos brasileiros em relação a essa questão. O Brasil foi usado como estudo de caso por se caracterizar como um país em desenvolvimento, localizado na região tropical e reconhecido internacionalmente por resultados positivos em relação ao combate às doenças negligenciadas e pela implementação de iniciativas que visam o maior acesso a medicamentos pela sua população / This research discusses the influence of the patent regime in the problem of diseases called neglected, they receive this designation because the private pharmaceutical industry has a lack of interest of to develop new drugs to them. These diseases victimize people in poor countries or developing countries located in tropical regions. This patent regime also hinders the objectives of public programs for the production and distribution of drugs, which aim to garantee better health conditions to poorest of the population. For a better understanding, we analyzed the TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) which regulates the current patent regime at the international level, and discussed the behavior of the World Health Organization (WHO) and of Brazilian governments in relation to this issue. Brazil was used as a case study because it is characterized as a developing country, located in tropical region and with positive results internationally recognized in his strategies to combating neglected diseases and in the implementation of initiatives aimed at increase access to medicines for its population

Orientador: Karina Lilia Pasquariello Mariano / Banca: Gabriel Cepaluni / Banca: Luciana Togeiro de Almeida / Resumo: O presente trabalho discute a influência do regime de patentes estabelecido internacionalmente, sobre o problema das doenças denominadas "negligenciadas", que recebem esta designação por não despertarem interesse da indústria farmacêutica privada para o desenvolvimento de novos medicamentos, pois vitimam principalmente as populações dos países pobres ou em desenvolvimento localizados na região tropical. Esse regime de patentes também dificulta os objetivos dos programas públicos de produção e distribuição de medicamentos, que visam atender às camadas mais pobres da população, necessitadas destes e sem condições próprias de adquiri-los. Para se ter uma melhor compreensão deste contexto foi analisado, principalmente, o acordo TRIPS (Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) que regulamenta o atual regime de patentes em nível internacional, considerando a postura da Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS) e dos governos brasileiros em relação a essa questão. O Brasil foi usado como estudo de caso por se caracterizar como um país em desenvolvimento, localizado na região tropical e reconhecido internacionalmente por resultados positivos em relação ao combate às doenças negligenciadas e pela implementação de iniciativas que visam o maior acesso a medicamentos pela sua população / Abstract: This research discusses the influence of the patent regime in the problem of diseases called "neglected", they receive this designation because the private pharmaceutical industry has a lack of interest of to develop new drugs to them. These diseases victimize people in poor countries or developing countries located in tropical regions. This patent regime also hinders the objectives of public programs for the production and distribution of drugs, which aim to garantee better health conditions to poorest of the population. For a better understanding, we analyzed the TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) which regulates the current patent regime at the international level, and discussed the behavior of the World Health Organization (WHO) and of Brazilian governments in relation to this issue. Brazil was used as a case study because it is characterized as a developing country, located in tropical region and with positive results internationally recognized in his strategies to combating neglected diseases and in the implementation of initiatives aimed at increase access to medicines for its population / Mestre