ABSTRACT UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention of 1972 has set the standard for the evaluation, preservation and conservation of World Heritage Sites (WHS) globally. The role and function of UNESCO in the cultural heritage sector in Africa, in particular cannot be denied. However, the World Heritage Convention (WHC) site management requirements for African States that are parties to the Convention, presents challenges in terms of implementation. This is due in most cases, to lack of infrastructure, deficient national policy structures, poor legislation, bad management and poor implementation. This is particularly the case in developing countries where governments are grappling with socio-economic and political challenges. Questions are raised about who has the right to define heritage, and what kinds of parameters are used to measure World Heritage of ‘‘universal’’ value. Is it appropriate for UNESCO to recommend a set of standards that have become a lens through which global cultural heritage policy is viewed and measured? What then are the implications for African sites for being listed as World Heritage, and what are their chances of competing in the global cultural arena based on the challenges mentioned above? This research report, through a study of the Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, attempts to grapple with aspects of the questions raised above, and seeks to illustrate the challenges of managing a World Heritage Site. It highlights the gaps between WHC requirements, national cultural policy legislation, infrastructural and human resource incapacity, and implementation by the management at the Mapungubwe World Heritage Site

Mongomi wa Kolo is a hunter-gatherer rock art site within the Kondoa district of Central Tanzania. The site is part of a large group of rock art sites in Kondoa that were collectively declared a National Monument by the Antiquities Act of Tanzania, enacted in 1964 and amended in 1979. In July 2006, the World Heritage Committee inscribed the rock art of Kondoa as a World Heritage Site, acknowledging its international significance, its authentic beauty and living heritage. Mongomi wa Kolo is a focal point for regular ritual practices among the Bantulanguage speaking Warangi and Wasi/Waragwa communities in Kondoa District, Central Tanzania. The Warangi and Waragwa migrated to this area at the start of the third century. Since this time they have been using Mongomi wa Kolo for traditional ritual ceremonies. Currently, the management of Mongomi wa Kolo has sought to control the ritual ceremonies of Warangi and Wasi/Waragwa communities because some rites are damaging the archaeology and rock paintings of the site. This control has led to a conflict between local ritual practitioners and authorities responsible for heritage management. Management of living heritage is new to the Tanzanian cultural heritage authority. This study explores the implications of including living heritage in the management at the archaeological World Heritage Site of Mongomi wa Kolo. Examples are drawn from other World Heritage Sites that manage living heritage. Specifically this study considers how best to integrate living heritage within the management of the Mongomi wa Kolo rock painting site. It then discusses the challenges of adapting the Tanzanian Antiquities legislation to cover living heritage. This study will be achieved through a review of the history of the management of living heritage, international and national legislation protecting living heritage, and interviews undertaken with elders, traditional practitioners, communities around Kolo and nearby villages, and with staff of the Antiquities Department.

Il s'agit de l'étude de la dégradation croissante du delta du Saloum au Sénégal à travers la compréhension des impacts des facteurs physiques et anthropiques sur les patrimoines locaux, notamment la nature (faune, flore, sols, etc.). Ainsi, c’est un vrai cercle vicieux qui se manifeste par les influences réciproques négatives entre l'homme et les paysages environnementaux, surtout à l'aire des changements climatiques et de l'accroissement de la pauvreté, qui pèse sur cette aire humide particulière où populations et écologie ont toujours formé un paysage culturel, d’ailleurs classé aujourd'hui patrimoine mondial par l’UNESCO. Mais hélas, de plus en plus menacé, il urge de transformer cette tendance dévastatrice de l’interface homme-nature en un cercle vertueux pour un développement local plus durable. C’est dire, en substance, que les enjeux d'une gouvernance de l’estuaire du Saloum dans la perspective d'une préservation durable des patrimoines sont énormes. / This is the study of the increasing degradation of the Saloum delta in Senegal through the understanding of the impacts of physical and human factors on local heritage, including nature (fauna, flora, soils, etc.). Thus, it is a real vicious circle manifested by the negative reciprocal influences between man and environmental landscapes, especially in the area of climate change and increasing poverty, which weighs on this particular wetland. where populations and ecology have always formed a cultural landscape, which is now classified world heritage by UNESCO. But alas, increasingly threatened, it is urgent to turn this devastating trend of the human-nature interface into a virtuous circle for more sustainable local development. This is to say, in essence, that the stakes of a governance of the Saloum estuary in the perspective of a durable preservation of the patrimonies are enormous.

A partir de um estudo comparativo que tem como universos empíricos os casos das cidades de São Luís, no Brasil, e Guimarães, em Portugal, essa tese procura investigar a conversão de centros históricos a Patrimônio Mundial pela Unesco, problematizando os tipos de intervenção urbana que acompanham esse processo em suas diferentes etapas. Se, por um lado, buscamos investigar qual o papel das políticas de revitalização na concessão desse título, por outro, importou-nos saber a pertinência de pesquisar se a eleição de um centro histórico como Patrimônio Mundial serve para legitimar práticas de enobrecimento urbano. Além disso, procuramos apreender as imagens citadinas e as identidades locais construídas e/ou reabilitadas nesse processo, atentando para os interesses e projetos políticos aí envolvidos. Apreender e analisar as especificidades, os aspectos variantes e as similitudes existentes nos dois casos nos permitiu colher preciosas informações acerca da atual valorização do patrimônio cultural enquanto estratégia de promoção das cidades. Para além de temas como identidade nacional e memória, tornar-se Patrimônio Mundial tem resultado no acúmulo vantajoso de capital simbólico e de marcos de distinção que são imprescindíveis na inserção desses lugares históricos em circuitos de fruição turística e de consumo cultural. Quando pensamos que uma das intenções de salvaguardar um bem como Patrimônio da Humanidade é gerar uma solidariedade mundial e pertença comum, somos levados à ideia de que o uso mercadológico exacerbado desses bens, naquilo que denominamos tragédia do patrimônio, tem resultado em um movimento contraditório, uma vez que a disputa de cidades e lugares no circuito turístico mundial gera muito mais competição do que solidariedade / From nation to market: world heritages and urban interventions in comparative perspective From a comparative study that has as empirical universes the cases of the cities São Luís in Brazil and Guimaraes in Portugal, this thesis investigates the conversion of historic centers to Unescos World Heritage, discussing the types of urban intervention that accompany this process in its different steps. If, on the one hand, we seek to investigate the role of revitalization policies in the awarding of this title, on the other hand, imported us know the relevance of searching if the election of a historic center as a World Heritage serves to legitimize practices of urban gentrification. Furthermore, we attempted to apprehend the city images and local identities constructed and/or rehabilitated in the process, focusing on the political interests and projects there involved. Apprehending and analyzing the specificities, the variant aspects and similarities existing in both cases allowed us to gather valuable information about the current valorization of cultural heritage as strategy of promoting the cities. In addition to themes such as national identity and memory, becoming World Heritage has resulted in advantageous accumulation of symbolic capital and marks of distinction that are essential in the integration of these historical places in circuits of tourist and cultural consumption fruition. When we think that one of the intentions to safeguard an asset as Humanitys Heritage is to generate a global solidarity and common membership, we are led to the idea that the exacerbated marketing use of these assets, in what we call tragedy of heritage, has resulted in a contradictory movement, since the dispute of cities and places in the world tourist circuit generates much more competition than solidarity

A partir de um estudo comparativo que tem como universos empíricos os casos das cidades de São Luís, no Brasil, e Guimarães, em Portugal, essa tese procura investigar a conversão de centros históricos a Patrimônio Mundial pela Unesco, problematizando os tipos de intervenção urbana que acompanham esse processo em suas diferentes etapas. Se, por um lado, buscamos investigar qual o papel das políticas de revitalização na concessão desse título, por outro, importou-nos saber a pertinência de pesquisar se a eleição de um centro histórico como Patrimônio Mundial serve para legitimar práticas de enobrecimento urbano. Além disso, procuramos apreender as imagens citadinas e as identidades locais construídas e/ou reabilitadas nesse processo, atentando para os interesses e projetos políticos aí envolvidos. Apreender e analisar as especificidades, os aspectos variantes e as similitudes existentes nos dois casos nos permitiu colher preciosas informações acerca da atual valorização do patrimônio cultural enquanto estratégia de promoção das cidades. Para além de temas como identidade nacional e memória, tornar-se Patrimônio Mundial tem resultado no acúmulo vantajoso de capital simbólico e de marcos de distinção que são imprescindíveis na inserção desses lugares históricos em circuitos de fruição turística e de consumo cultural. Quando pensamos que uma das intenções de salvaguardar um bem como Patrimônio da Humanidade é gerar uma solidariedade mundial e pertença comum, somos levados à ideia de que o uso mercadológico exacerbado desses bens, naquilo que denominamos tragédia do patrimônio, tem resultado em um movimento contraditório, uma vez que a disputa de cidades e lugares no circuito turístico mundial gera muito mais competição do que solidariedade / From nation to market: world heritages and urban interventions in comparative perspective From a comparative study that has as empirical universes the cases of the cities São Luís in Brazil and Guimaraes in Portugal, this thesis investigates the conversion of historic centers to Unescos World Heritage, discussing the types of urban intervention that accompany this process in its different steps. If, on the one hand, we seek to investigate the role of revitalization policies in the awarding of this title, on the other hand, imported us know the relevance of searching if the election of a historic center as a World Heritage serves to legitimize practices of urban gentrification. Furthermore, we attempted to apprehend the city images and local identities constructed and/or rehabilitated in the process, focusing on the political interests and projects there involved. Apprehending and analyzing the specificities, the variant aspects and similarities existing in both cases allowed us to gather valuable information about the current valorization of cultural heritage as strategy of promoting the cities. In addition to themes such as national identity and memory, becoming World Heritage has resulted in advantageous accumulation of symbolic capital and marks of distinction that are essential in the integration of these historical places in circuits of tourist and cultural consumption fruition. When we think that one of the intentions to safeguard an asset as Humanitys Heritage is to generate a global solidarity and common membership, we are led to the idea that the exacerbated marketing use of these assets, in what we call tragedy of heritage, has resulted in a contradictory movement, since the dispute of cities and places in the world tourist circuit generates much more competition than solidarity

Thesis (M. Dev.)--University of Limpopo, 2010.

This thesis depicts the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1972), an international law for the protection of natural and cultural heritage sites, as an example of the multiple practices within international policy making. By analysing its transnational constitution, I show how the Convention is constructed in and between locales through bureaucratic and diplomatic procedures characterised by intersecting political and economic interests. Using neo-institutional theory, I argue that organisations such as UNESCO frame problems as global, provide solutions, and organise the actions of states, organizations, and individuals; furthermore, my research not only illustrates how this occurs but also explores the preconditions of international policy making. While adhering to its officially proclaimed aspirations, states, organisations, and individuals also use the Convention for other purposes such as international prestige, career advancement, publicity, identity, development, tourism – even war. Such contending interests raise the question of explaining the success of the Convention and thereby the preconditions of policy making at the international level. A conclusion reached by this study shows that growing interest in the Convention can be regarded to result only partially from the general acceptance of its global rhetoric and morally vested perspective or the need for states to gain legitimacy by engaging in international relations. My thesis proposes that rather than by its official aims and formal procedures, the Convention is constituted primarily through complex informal relations, concurring contexts, and external structures. Data for this ethnographic study consists of field notes from participant observations during UNESCO meetings in France, Morocco, Australia, and at the Convention’s secretariat. A case study of the Agricultural Landscape of Southern Öland, a Swedish World Heritage site, is also included, along with interviews, documents, and media.

The concept of heritage is full of conflicts and contestations. The UNESCO’s intervention in the form of the “World Heritage Convention” enriches the meaning of heritage but may exacerbate the intrinsic tensions in heritage while expanding its economic significance through tourism. Heritage tourism is an effective means to realize the economic potential of heritage. This is a major reason why developing countries like China apply for UNESCO world heritage designation. However, some stakeholders take more benefits while others bear more costs in the interplay of heritage conservation and tourism. Achievement of a balance among resource conservation, tourism development, and local community well-being is a pressing challenge for planning and management of World Heritage Sites. This research examines the implications of World Heritage designation for conservation of the world heritage and, particularly, for the lives of local people living in and around the site. It is argued that such people often bear the most costs while often being ignored or disadvantaged in terms of benefits. Sustainability of local life is interdependent with sustainability of heritage conservation and tourism. A key goal of heritage planning should be to mitigate heritage contestation and dissonance, and to sustain local people’s livelihoods and enhance their life quality. This would be conducive to the overall sustainability of the heritage resource. Using Mount Taishan, a UNESCO world heritage site in China, as a case study, employing a plan and implementation evaluation approach, and taking a community perspective, this thesis evaluates the plans for the world heritage site and their implementation from three perspectives: resource conservation, visitor experience and local well-being (particularly local involvement in, and benefit from tourism). A mixture of quantitative and qualitative research methods is used and the transferability and applicability of western heritage planning and evaluation methods to China is examined implicitly. It is shown that much attention has been placed on resource conservation on this world heritage site, although the desire for economic returns underpins the conservation. The resource integrity of the heritage mountain has been marred by the construction of several cable cars for tourism. The number of visitors keeps growing. However, visitor experiences are generally positive except for crowding during the high seasons and length of stay has decreased. Local involvement in decision making relating to heritage operations is low. Local involvement in the provision of tourism services is high but uneven, and usually under the organization of the village committees. Faced with land loss, displacement, and livelihood change, villagers are very positive toward and very much dependent on tourism as the major or sole means of making a living. The power-relations that are reflected in the heritage nexus are a key issue. As the most powerful stakeholder, the local government’s intervention produces high efficiency and also inequity. Short-term goals are sought, reflecting the short tenure of officials. Within this context, western heritage planning ideas, including the advocacy of community involvement and public participation, have met many challenges in China, although this could change with socio-political developments in China.

The concept of heritage is full of conflicts and contestations. The UNESCO’s intervention in the form of the “World Heritage Convention” enriches the meaning of heritage but may exacerbate the intrinsic tensions in heritage while expanding its economic significance through tourism. Heritage tourism is an effective means to realize the economic potential of heritage. This is a major reason why developing countries like China apply for UNESCO world heritage designation. However, some stakeholders take more benefits while others bear more costs in the interplay of heritage conservation and tourism. Achievement of a balance among resource conservation, tourism development, and local community well-being is a pressing challenge for planning and management of World Heritage Sites. This research examines the implications of World Heritage designation for conservation of the world heritage and, particularly, for the lives of local people living in and around the site. It is argued that such people often bear the most costs while often being ignored or disadvantaged in terms of benefits. Sustainability of local life is interdependent with sustainability of heritage conservation and tourism. A key goal of heritage planning should be to mitigate heritage contestation and dissonance, and to sustain local people’s livelihoods and enhance their life quality. This would be conducive to the overall sustainability of the heritage resource. Using Mount Taishan, a UNESCO world heritage site in China, as a case study, employing a plan and implementation evaluation approach, and taking a community perspective, this thesis evaluates the plans for the world heritage site and their implementation from three perspectives: resource conservation, visitor experience and local well-being (particularly local involvement in, and benefit from tourism). A mixture of quantitative and qualitative research methods is used and the transferability and applicability of western heritage planning and evaluation methods to China is examined implicitly. It is shown that much attention has been placed on resource conservation on this world heritage site, although the desire for economic returns underpins the conservation. The resource integrity of the heritage mountain has been marred by the construction of several cable cars for tourism. The number of visitors keeps growing. However, visitor experiences are generally positive except for crowding during the high seasons and length of stay has decreased. Local involvement in decision making relating to heritage operations is low. Local involvement in the provision of tourism services is high but uneven, and usually under the organization of the village committees. Faced with land loss, displacement, and livelihood change, villagers are very positive toward and very much dependent on tourism as the major or sole means of making a living. The power-relations that are reflected in the heritage nexus are a key issue. As the most powerful stakeholder, the local government’s intervention produces high efficiency and also inequity. Short-term goals are sought, reflecting the short tenure of officials. Within this context, western heritage planning ideas, including the advocacy of community involvement and public participation, have met many challenges in China, although this could change with socio-political developments in China.

This study focuses on Bhaktapur Durbar Square, one of the monument zone of Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site which lies within a Bhaktapur city, an ancient historic town. Through survey research targeting local people and key informants interviews, this study tried to investigate on the domains of major impacts from the cultural tourism in Bhaktapur Durbar Square from the perspective of local community. The study then explores the different factors serving to generate the impacts from macro and micro level of context. Macro level deals with the international and national context whereas micro level deals with local context. Using data collection methods such as interviews with organizations involved in the management of WHS, tourism, expert interviews, primary and secondary data analysis, which is to explore factors affecting the generation of tourism impacts for the community, is carried out. By combining the research conducted at the community level and the many influencing factors, the study intends to explain the socio-economic-cultural heritage impacts at the community level in light of the management or governing process of the WHS, the institutional arrangement as well as the interactions between organizations, and in the context of policy – which is reflected in the current legal framework influencing the site. This study finds that cultural tourism in Bhaktapur has contributed significantly to local government’s tax revenue particularly through tourist entry fee which in turn contributed in the conservation of the world heritage properties. However, the study also found that there have been limited positive impacts of cultural tourism for the majority of local people i.e. farmers group. Tourism has not encouraged the growth in the agriculture sector – a sector in which more than 60% of the farmers are involved. The concentrated tourism development at the core area of the city imparts the economic disparity among the people one who live in the core area and one beyond it. This study also found that tourism in Bhaktapur has limited impacts in raising the standard of living, household income, skills and training, infrastructure and public facilities. In the analysis of factors in the international context, this study argues that the nomination process, guidance from relevant international organizations and development in WHS discourse have influenced the cultural tourism development – although not directly. In terms of the national context, it finds that there is a lack of comprehensive policies and planning for conservation and tourism development which works in separate institutional framework. Analysis of factors in the local context, problems at the local area, such as decreasing agriculture land, inefficient management plan, lack of political commitment, lack of awareness and education, limited scope of work, lack of community organization, etc contribute to the perceived tourism impacts. This study finds institutional problems such as lack of planning mechanism, difficulties in coordination as well as legal framework that prevent the management system from working together to address local issues. This study recommends that a strong cooperation and coordination mechanism should be established under the framework of comprehensive community development and management plan in order to develop local economy alongside with tourism and contributing to wider benefits to the local community. A community based tourism strategy is recommended in order to reduce the disparity, directly benefiting the community and encouraging the local community to involve in decision making process. All of these efforts may help to realize at the micro level, the ideal of WHS for development that has been stated by organizations such as UNESCO in the macro level. / published_or_final_version / Urban Planning and Design / Master / Master of Science in Urban Planning