Subterranean ecosystems are regarded as the most extensive biome on earth, comprising terrestrial and aquatic systems - the latter constituting freshwater, anchialine and marine systems. This system plays a key role in the distribution and storage of freshwater, once it contains 97% of the world’s total liquid freshwater (Chapter 1), which has been progressively explored in quality and amount. Initial observation of the subterranean environment began with speleological studies by the recognition of a typical fauna adapted to live inside caves. The first studies to provide information about aquatic subterranean fauna commenced in Slovenia, with the description of the Proteus aguinus by Laurenti in 1768. After an initial faunal classification by the Danish zoologist Schiödte (1849), the Austrian naturalist Schiner (1854) established the most commonly used classification for cave fauna and a great portion of modern research dealing with ecobilogy of aquatic subterranean fauna has mostly evolved from the European biospeleology (Chapters 1 and 3). Studies in biospeleology have made a significant contribution to the progressive knowledge in aquatic subterranean ecology, especially in those circumstances where the access of the underground through smaller voids (e.g. crevicular spaces) is not possible. Accessibility to the underground environment is in fact a negative factor that has led a large number of studies consider about subterranean fauna initially being limited to caves. Spatial constraint was (and still is) a limiting factor in accessing a diverse range of subsurface habitats, although during the last decade, modern research has been using advance technology as a tool to overcome the physical barriers to subterranean research. For a long time the classification of subterranean aquatic organisms was an unclear subject, with the classification subterranean fauna mostly related to terrestrial cave fauna (troglofauna). The classification system dealing with aquatic subterranean groups (stygofauna) is more recent. A few nomenclature schemes have been proposed to describe these relationships, based on morphological, behavioural, and ecological adaptations of animals to the underground life and their level of relationship with groundwater (Chapter 4). The prefix “stygo” is suggested as the most descriptive to refer ecologically to a group of animals related to groundwater habitats. Groundwater related fauna (stygofauna) is comprised by groups of animals encompassing aquatic surface, intermediate and subterranean habitats. They represent diverse group of animals that have different interactive relationships with the groundwater habitat. Some may transact between surface water and groundwater systems, while others spend the whole life cycle in the subterranean voids (Gibert et al., 1994). This transition zone between surface streams and groundwater is recognized as a critically important boundary or ecotone, constituted by a habitat that contains a reservoir of invertebrate fauna biodiversity. It is therefore from the study of karst systems that most information on groundwater ecobiology is resourced, once the open structure of most karsts terrains promotes a number of caves, streams, crevices, sinkholes, and springs to allow human access. Karst systems are well fractured because of the relation between the rock mass and the action of meteoric water, as well as the dissolution rate of calcium carbonate rocks that high. The latter increases with time, producing a terrain with a great drainage potential (Chapter 2). Once porosity is high and the flow of percolating water is fast, it allows good vagility for subterranean fauna and nutrients, as well as penetration of contaminants. In subterranean karsts, much water saturates some areas inside rock spaces. The saturation in the rock in turn promotes large water pockets, known as aquifers. When these groundwater aquifers are found to be interconnecting with the adjacent ecosystems, they became active eco-hydrological components, due to their key participation in the surface-groundwater continuum. Groundwater has different degrees of importance, depending on the available sources of surface water. In many countries it supplies a significant proportion of urban and rural drinking water, industrial, and agricultural. Yet, groundwater systems are “hidden”, difficult in access and to study (Chapter 4, 5 and 7), consequently the recognition of the groundwater aquifer as a natural resource that needs to be protected is largely ignored. Moreover, studies in the ecobiology and distribution of stygobitic invertebrates (Chapter 5), and the need to identify a frame of methods for quality assessment and the suitability of groundwater invertebrates as bioindicative elements, has not been developed (Chapter 6). Finally, strong management and public education programs are required to emphasize the need for a better understanding of the nature of groundwater resources, their participation and complexity (Chapter 8), with the conceptualization of the groundwater aquifer integrity as an ecosystem still receiving little attention in South Africa. / Dr. J.F. Durand Prof. G.J. Steyn

People have varied and complex relationships with stone, in its raw geology and in its altered forms. Often, however, in cultural contexts, stone remains in the background, as a taken for granted and unremarkable element of the material world. In this thesis, stone moves into the foreground. The research presented here explores how close attention to those who work intimately with stone can disclose unexpected and absorbing stories. The cultural geologies extracted and presented in this thesis cast light on the diversity of ways in which people relate to, and with, the land; and experiment with a range of different ways in which these relations can be narrated. Set on the Jurassic Coast, in the south west of England, the stone exposures that emerge along the margin between land and sea offer a productive site for developing a cultural geological approach. The limestones, shales and clays are framed, in this work, by the narratives of quarrymen and geologists. The work explores how their particular knowledges are formed, and how they exist within wider historical and ecological understandings. Their narratives bring the stratigraphy to life, and draw attention to the hidden worlds within it. The different priorities and perspectives of quarrymen and geologists are shown to lead in different directions, interweave, or run parallel. The very specific languages and descriptions they employ reveal a level of complexity and richness of detail that is mirrored in the stone. Using an approach that combines close observation and creative practice, this study examines stone at a variety of scales, and in different contexts. The work engages with specific stone types, landscapes, voids, buildings and objects. Processes of working stone through practices of lettering, sculpture and masonry elicit understandings of the material that reach far beneath its surface. The absent spaces of quarries are then explored, showing how voids can be animated with knowledge, and how destructive processes can generate creative potential, when sensitively worked and considered. Lastly, the study draws all these ideas together in a discussion of stone assemblages in buildings, to see how voices from geology and quarrying can foster greater understanding of how buildings were constructed in the past, and how we conserve them into the future.

Abstract There are a lot of ecocertifications in Sweden for a variety of different categories; for example the Swan, which is a label for both hotels and products; KRAV, a label for farms and what farms pro- duce; Nature’s Best, a label for tourist adventures; the Sápmi Experience, a newly developed label for Sámi tourism, and The Green Key, a certification offered by Håll Sverige Rent for hostels, ho- tels, mountain cabins and camping grounds. Nature’s Best and the Green Key I have chosen as the focus for this paper, because they are the most relevant for my research. I will also give some atten- tion to Sápmi Experience because it is an interesting development in indigenous tourism. In the World Heritage area of Laponia, where I conducted fieldwork, there are several actors that have in- terest in the ecotourism business. Some of the actors are Sámi, the indigenous people whose princi- pal livelihood in Laponia is reindeer herding, and some are non-Sámi, like the Swedish Tourist As- sociation (STF) or other small-scale businesses. Some of them have the Nature’s Best label on their adventures, some do not. I find the Sámi culture and way of life very interesting, and since they are a big part of the World Heritage area Laponia landscape and an indigenous people, it was natural for me include them in this thesis. In this thesis I want to address the questions of for whom and why there are ecocertifications and quality markings. Are they for tourists, for traveling agencies, for people living in popular tourist areas, or perhaps for the environment?

The subject of this master thesis are Angkor temples which represent an invaluable cultural and historical heritage of Cambodia. The tourism of Cambodia grows constantly every year thanks to the vast flow of tourists coming to see Angkor. Angkor temples are among the most visited tourist sites in the world and Cambodia is the one of the poorest countries in Asia. The aim of this thesis s to show how one tourist site can effect the tourism of the whole country and how this country is using the potential of this site for in order to increase financial revenues instead of developing other regions of the country.

The Drakensberg range is the highest landscape zone in southern Africa, is a World Heritage site and an important source of surface runoff. General climatic evaluations covering the area, however, date from the 1970’s. Remarkably, few contemporary studies detail rainfall attributes and limited surface-climate data has been collected describing the sub-periglacial summit regions. This thesis presents an evaluation of rainfall and surface-temperature attributes in the mountains and, where possible, related geomorphic implications are described. The assessment is partly based on analysis of historical rainfall data measured by the South African Weather Services during the 20thCentury, and partly on new rainfall, air and soil temperature data collected by the author over a five year period. Historical rainfall records show, when a spatial approach is taken, that altitude and distance from the escarpment eastward influence annual rainfall totals. Latitude plays no significant role in influencing rainfall totals, but is the single important factor influencing inter- and intra-annual rainfall variability. Rainfall variability increases from the southern Drakensberg to the north where important water transfer schemes operate. When a temporal approach is taken, historical records indicate no change in mean annual rainfall during the last half of the 20th century. Intra-annual rainfall variability has increased and this is illustrated by a statistically significant decrease of rainfall during the autumn season. A contemporaneous as well as a lagged correlation exists between the El Niño/Southern Oscillation and summer rainfall in the Drakensberg. An increase in the frequency and intensity of ENSO should decrease summer rainfall and the lagged correlation could be used for summer rainfall forecasting. Using temporary field stations, analysis of rainfall and air, soil and rock temperatures contribute to an improved understanding of the characteristics and structure of rainfall events, surface conditions and effect on rock weathering and soil erosional processes. With respect to rainfall attributes, totals recorded on the escarpment summit are considerably less than anticipated. Individual erosive storm events at all altitudes are found to have the ability to detach soil, but at high altitude less rain falls as erosive storms, and the total erosivity generated by rainfall events is less on the escarpment than in the foothills. Five-minute intensity data indicate that extreme rainfall events generate peak rainfall intensity, within the first half of the storm duration. Mean annual air temperature (MAAT) measured on the escarpment falls within the range previously estimated, but is higher than the MAAT suggested by other authors for the plateau peaks behind the escarpment. No long-duration, or seasonal freeze was found on the soil surface and soil temperatures are generally higher than air temperatures. Rock temperature and rainfall frequency recorded below the escarpment imply an environment conducive to rock weathering processes such as wetting and drying and thermal fatigue with the possibility of frost action. Contrasting air, rock and soil surface temperatures measured in the Drakensberg, emphasises the dissimilarity in micro-environmental conditions experienced by different natural mediums in the landscape. Overall, the data confirm the marginal-periglacial nature of the summit region but earlier estimates for rainfall totals at the escarpment appear to be notably high. Extrapolation towards, for example, palaeo-precipitation scenarios using earlier estimates, should thus be made with caution. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / PhD / Unrestricted

Diploma thesis called “CONVERSION OF DORMITORY TO HOSTEL AND NEW DESIGN OF HOTEL, TOMIOKA SILK MILL JAPAN“ was elaborated according to the regulations in the form of architectural study. The topics of this thesis were two variants of possible conversion of accommodation for workwomen (dormitory). The partial assignment comprised solution to the arrangement of greenery in the atrium of the dormitory, and revitalization of plateau. The building is located in the premise of a former silk mill in the city Tomioka in the Gunma prefecture on the Honshu island in Japan. The conversion of the building for the novel purpose required replenishment of necessary facilities, and some building interventions to assure operation of the hostel. In both variants, partial adjustment of the original building was needed. However, all changes had to maintain proportions and volume of the building not to compromise the original concept of whole premise as well as the skyline of the city. The adjustments of the original building of dormitory consisted of a completion of the entrance portal including a foyer, and a reception with the base of operation. Large glass areas in combination with exposed concrete were used as construction materials. These materials were selected so that the new structures (monolithic ferroconcrete) are clearly distinguishable from original ones (wood). The Internal atrium was designed in the style of modern japan garden with various types of surfaces (vegetation – moss; mineral – gravel and stones). Variant 1 – the new constructions of the two facility buildings. Building A is washroom building, and building B is catering building with toilets. The volumes of individual objects were formed by simple prisms rotated by 30° a 60° against axis of dormitory. These volumes complied with dimensions of the original building. The building A protruded on the edge of the slope, and it was paneled with glass plates. The building B was glassed-in from the south, while the northern side was constructed from exposed concrete in a compact way. The building A was divided to two symmetric parts by a central wall for both structural and functional purposes. At the end of the building, there was an ofuro (swimming pool) providing views of the surrounding mountains. Typological solution of the building B included separate toilets with a mixed washroom, which were located in the northern part of the building. In the southern part, the space for catering was divided to an operational space, and a space for visitors by a dispensing counter. The building A was from reinforced concrete and was founded on the base plate. The central wall represented the main load-bearing structural element that prevents transverse breakage. The central wall was anchored into the ground with piles. The building B was also from reinforced concrete and was based on the strip foundations. Variant 2 – the extension was formed as a simple prism that complied with the rectangular system of the premise and dimensions of the original dormitory building. Employed materials of the new constructions were concrete and glass similarly to the other new extensions. To ensure intimate environment, the glass part of a façade was enclosed by a bamboo fence. This space was also used as a viewable green garden. The building was typologically divided to the parts for women and men. Both parts were equipped with ofuro. The building was monolithic ferroconcrete skeleton based on the footings.

No description available.

A symbolic landscape of Morocco is the square Jemaa el-Fna, in the Medina of Marrakech, listed as one of UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites. Jemaa el-Fna square welcomes thousands of tourists each day, and the tourism industry is the second largest contributor to Morocco's GDP. However, the square currently faces serious threats due to urbanization and intensive tourism.This study aims to uncover the interconnections and tensions between cultural heritage and tourism, centering on Jemaa el-Fna square. Through an observational study, interviews with tourist operators and a survey for visitors, the study can reveal that tourism leads to commercialization and an overdependence on the tourism industry. The study demonstrates how institutional initiatives aim to preserve Medina's traditional and cultural aspects and thus are involved in shaping how heritage is created and maintained. The study concludes that the relationship between cultural heritage and tourism is indeed an intricate relationship. The tensions in the relationship expresses itself in the overdependence of tourism, the commercialisation of heritage and the power imbalance that has impacted the site historically and in the present. Meanwhile, the heritage tourism at the site seems to be an active process with tourists being involved in the cultural heritage they observe and engage in, making them a part in shaping the Moroccan heritage at present.

聯合國教育科學暨文化組織（UNESCO，以下簡稱聯合國教科文組織）於1972年11月在第17屆大會上通過了《保護世界文化和自然遺產公約》（Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage，以下簡稱《世界遺產公約》），明確定義具有「突出的普遍價值」（Outstanding Universal Value）的世界文化和自然等兩項遺產要件，鼓勵各簽約國將所轄領土內符合條件的遺產地申請列入《世界遺產名錄》（The World Heritage List），並規定相關的積極維護措施，配合相關的國際政府間組織與非政府組織協力運作，共同組成建制體系，尋求世界各國政府與人民齊力合作，以支持並永久保護珍貴的「世界遺產」。 由於成為「世界遺產」之後，具有多面性的實質功效，除了足以大幅提升當地的國際知名度外，在政治方面可宣揚國家能力，提高國際整體能見度；在經濟方面可因觀光資源開發，帶動相關產業發展；在財政方面可因國際援助和旅客增長而豐富營收；在社會方面可提升公民意識，追求更高的文明水準；在文化方面則可增加對民族情感的認同，有助全民意志的凝聚，並且可達到教育百姓，提升國民素質的目的；在生態環境上則可召喚民眾保護意識，促進人類與環境平衡的永續發展。因此各締約國無不努力將國境內符合要件的文化遺跡、建物和自然環境、保護區等處所提名申請列入《世界遺產名錄》，所以《世界遺產名錄》中的名單因此逐年持續擴加，世界遺產建制更成為聯合國教科文組織最具成效的國際運作體系。 中國大陸並非《世界遺產公約》最早的締約國之一，事實上中國大陸雖早已於1971年取得聯合國中的中國代表權而同時成為聯合國教科文組織的會員國，但遲至1985年時才正式通過加入《世界遺產公約》。然而在短短二十餘年間，已成為最積極參與世界遺產建制體系的國家之一，不但登錄在《世界遺產名錄》中的世界遺產地高達35處，在數量上僅次於義大利和西班牙，居全球第三位。而且對於公約建制體系內的相關機構，無論是依照《世界遺產公約》所組成的締約國大會、世界遺產委員會，或是在建制體系中的相關協力諮詢國際組織，都積極主動參與並支持其歷次活動。同時在國內方面，為了貫徹世界遺產的理念，除了有關法令制度的革新外，也參照「世界遺產」制度，開始規劃建立「國家遺產」制度，推動「文化遺產日」，以及鼓勵與世界遺產有關的各項活動等。在政府與民間團體的大力宣揚，加上「世界遺產」本身就具有多方潛在利益的驅動下，於是近幾年終於在中國大陸各地掀起一片世界遺產熱潮。 這一波至今仍未有稍歇的世界遺產熱潮，當然與中國大陸的國力大幅提升有關。如同前述，「世界遺產」有政治、經濟、社會、文化和環保等實質效果，對中國大陸的政府與人民來說，「世界遺產」能創造立即而明顯的多方利益，因此具有足夠的動力驅策相關各界共同參與。但「世界遺產」無疑是一個完全外來的觀念，如何能在短時間內於中國大陸各地引起熱潮，讓各級政府和各種組織團體乃至一般百姓皆趨之若鶩，無寧是一個值得深入探討的研究主題。事實上，「世界遺產」的迅速發展，與中國大陸官方的支持密不可分。特別是自改革開放以來，中國大陸在戰略觀與對外政策上都逐漸發生重大演變，從一貫主張的「鬥爭與對抗」思維，正式走進「和平與發展」為戰略觀主軸的時代。並且由中共第四代領導正式提出「和諧世界」與「和諧社會」兩項政策，以「和諧」為名，期望將對外與對內政策互相連結，相輔相成，以利中國大陸後續的多方面發展與國力成長。在此特殊的背景下，中國大陸成功參與世界遺產建制的經驗，對於期待崛起成為世界性大國的中國大陸也就格外具有意義，其間的關連與影響頗值加以探究，並作為中國大陸在其它國際組織參與上之對照參考，進而對中國大陸的國際參與行為作出解釋和預測。

The settlement history of the Vredefort Dome can be described as a process of cultural development. The Vaal River hydrosphere, which was for many years a prestigious settlement site, initially attracted large scale game and later livestock farmers. The drifts were a central part of a network of early strategic communication routes and outspans. From 1838, pioneer settlement, farm occupation and agricultural development followed, and the area eventually entered an agriculture-mining era. Gold-mining stimulated the regional economy and also played a significant role in the development of towns in the area. The Vaal River did not play a significant role from a mining perspective, but featured more prominently in the development of villages and, in a sense, served as a political boundary. The location of the water source often determined where people settled permanently. It also decided the position of the house and yard. From the outset, riparian dwellers attempted to manipulate the flow of the river by creating dams and utilising water for irrigation and domestic purposes. Drought conditions also left historical traces; water management projects upstream transformed the Vaal River into a steadily flowing stream, which led to the economic and cultural segregation of north and south. Man's fear associated with drought (too little water), floods (too much water), meteorology (the necessity of water), and the role of the supernatural (divining water) and superstition (the water snake stories) were expressed in the interaction between people and this water environment. A wide variety of people with distinct cultures lived alongside each other in the area. Western and African cultural goods, as well as customs and beliefs, were mutually adopted by these different cultural groups as a result of this contact. The way land has been used in the Dome area has evolved over the years. The culling of game made way for the permanent establishment of the livestocktravelling farmer. Hereafter prolonged drought conditions destroyed pastures and, consequently, large areas of land were ploughed for agricultural use. Agriculture, which is more labour intensive and needs more water for irrigation, was replaced by game farming, which is less labour intensive and requires less water This world heritage site has drawn global interest and ecotourism has attracted visitors to the Vaal River area. The riparian dwellers, however, remain victims of up-stream industrial and sewage pollution; in future, they are likely to fall prey to acid mine water pollution, with disastrous consequences. / PhD (History), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013