Nas últimas décadas, a importância da normalização técnica para comércio internacional aumentou consideravelmente. Segundo dados da OCDE, estima-se que um total de 80% do comércio global na atualidade seja afetado por normas e regulamentos técnicos. Esse cenário justifica a preocupação dos Membros da OMC em incentivar o estabelecimento de padrões tecnológicos comuns nos diversos países, como um instrumento para evitar o incremento das barreiras técnicas e promover a facilitação do fluxo internacional de bens, serviços, investimentos e tecnologias. Contudo, o crescente envolvimento de direitos de propriedade intelectual nas normas técnicas internacionais tem preocupado algumas nações, principalmente em decorrência dos elevados custos, tensões e conflitos que resultam dessa situação, impactando de forma negativa o comércio. Sob a perspectiva do ordenamento jurídico do comércio internacional, o conflito revela-se no conjunto de obrigações que os Membros assumem no âmbito da OMC. Se os países devem obrigatoriamente utilizar como base as normas técnicas internacionais para estabelecer suas normas e regulamentos domésticos, e aquelas se encontram revestidas de direitos exclusivos privados, sua efetiva aplicação no plano doméstico depende da licença dos titulares desses direitos, nos termos e condições por eles impostos. No entanto, uma vez que eles não estejam dispostos a conceder licenças em termos razoáveis e não discriminatórios, ou se recusem a conferir a autorização, os países encontram dificuldades ou, ainda, ficam impossibilitados de implementar de forma plena as obrigações assumidas na OMC. A partir dessa hipótese, o presente estudo tem como objetivo analisar como se encontra regulada a relação entre a normalização técnica e a propriedade intelectual no ordenamento jurídico do comércio internacional. Esta tese confirma que as tensões inerentes à relação entre propriedade intelectual e normalização técnica alimentam um conflito sob a perspectiva do ordenamento jurídico do comércio internacional, que não possui regras específicas para regular a questão. Este conflito se traduz na dificuldade que os países têm na implementação plena das obrigações assumidas na OMC. Para a mitigação dos problemas que emergem desse conflito, observa-se que se destacam duas tendências seguidas pelos Membros da Organização. Uma delas consiste em incrementar as flexibilidades do Acordo TRIPS, como se verifica nos Estados Unidos, União Europeia e Índia. Outra opção observada é o afastamento das normas técnicas internacionais em prol da adoção de normas e regulamentos técnicos domésticos baseados em tecnologias nacionais ou não proprietárias com fundamento nas flexibilidades dos acordos TBT, SPS e GATS. Casos nesse sentido são identificados em países como China. Em certas circunstâncias, a preferência pelo estabelecimento de normas e regulamentos técnicos baseados essencialmente em tecnologias nacionais protegidas por direitos de propriedade intelectual pode robustecer as barreiras técnicas ao comércio. Diante disso, com o propósito de assegurar a efetividade dos acordos multilaterais de comércio e garantir segurança jurídica, entende-se necessário a adoção de medidas claras e adequadas, que busquem eliminar ou reduzir as tensões e conflito, e garantir a previsibilidade do Sistema Multilateral de Comércio. Importa, ainda, que tais medidas sejam estabelecidas de forma a facilitar o comércio internacional e promover a concorrência leal, a inovação, a transferência da tecnologia e o desenvolvimento das nações. / In recents decades, the importance of technical standards for international trade has increased substantially. According to OECD data, it is estimated that around 80% of global trade is affected by standards and technical regulations. This scenario justifies the concerns of WTO Members to encourage the settlement of common technological standards in different countries, as a tool to prevent the rise of technical barriers and promote the facilitation of the international flow of goods, services, investment and technology. However, the increasing involvement of intellectual property rights in international standards has concerned some nations, mainly due to high costs, tensions and conflicts that result from this situation, adversely impacting trade. From the perspective of international trade law, the conflict is revealed in the set of obligations that States assumed in the WTO. If countries must use international standards as a basis to establish technical regulations and norms, and those are covered by private exclusive rights, its effective implementation at the domestic level depends on the approval of rights holders, according the terms and conditions imposed by them. However, since the rights holders are not willing to grant licenses on reasonable and non-discriminatory conditions, or refuse to grant the licenses, countries may find difficult or even remain unable to fully implement their obligations in the WTO. From this hypothesis, this study aims to analyze as it is regulated the relationship between technical standards and intellectual property in international trade law. This thesis confirms that the tensions inherent in the relationship between intellectual property and technical standardization feed a conflict from the perspective of international trade law, which has no specific rules to regulate this question. This conflict is reflected in the difficulty countries have in the full implementation of the obligations assumed in WTO. In order to mitigate the problems that emerge from this conflict, it is observed that there are two trends followed by the Members of the Organization. One is to enhance the flexibilities of the TRIPS Agreement, as is the case in the United States, European Union and India. Another option is the deviation of international standards in favor of domestic standards and technical regulations based on national or non proprietary technologies founded on the flexibilities of TBT, SPS and GATS. Such cases are identified in countries like China. In some circumstances, the preference for the creation of standards and technical regulations based mainly on national technologies protected by intellectual property rights can strengthen the technical barriers to trade. Therefore, in order to ensure the effectiveness of multilateral trade agreements, it is necessary to establish clear and appropriate measures, which seek to eliminate or reduce tensions and conflict, and ensure the predictability of the multilateral trading system. It is also important that such measures are established to facilitate international trade and promote fair competition, innovation, technology transfer and development of nations.

Magister Legum - LLM / South Africa

Magister Legum - LLM

La baisse généralisée des tarifs douaniers, combinée au développement fulgurant du mouvement delibéralisation à l’échelle mondiale, a entraîné un foisonnement extraordinaire des obstacles nontarifaires. Cette tendance s’explique par la volonté des Etats souverains de limiter l’emprise du libreéchangesur leurs politiques publiques. Ils pratiquent, par le truchement des obstacles non tarifaires, unprotectionnisme qui, au demeurant, est doublement appréhendé. Dans un sens, ce protectionnisme estéconomique. Il vise à protéger les opérateurs économiques nationaux de la concurrence étrangère, leurassurant ainsi des parts de marché au détriment d’autres opérateurs internationaux. Il est dès lors illicite.Dans un autre, le protectionnisme se veut licite dans la mesure où les obstacles non tarifaires sont érigésafin de parer à la négation d’objectifs non économiques légitimes. En dépit du fait qu’elle soitpromotrice du libéralisme, l’Union européenne, conformément à ses traités constitutifs, se veutprotectrice d’un certain nombre de valeurs non marchandes dont elle a du mal à imposer le respect dansle cadre multilatéral de l’OMC. L’atteinte de ce double objectif est recherchée au travers de la pratiqueconventionnelle européenne. Celle-ci est marquée par la conclusion d’accords bilatéraux avecdifférentes régions du monde, dans le cadre d’une entreprise de « maîtrise de la mondialisation ». Sur leplan strictement juridique, trois ordres s’interpénètrent dans l’explication de la pratique conventionnelleeuropéenne des obstacles non tarifaires : l’ordre constitué par les « accords externes », celui del’ « Union européenne » et enfin l’ « ordre multilatéral ». / The generalized decline of tariffs, combined to the dazzling development of liberalism around theworld, led to an extraordinary expansion of non-tariff barriers. This trend is explained by the desire ofsovereign States to restrict the hold of free trade on their internal policies. By using non-tariff barriers,they implement protectionism which is of two kinds. On the one hand, this protectionism is economic. Itaims to protect national economic operators from foreign competition, assuring them market shares atthe expense of other international operators. This protectionism is unlawful. In another hand, theprotectionism must be licit because non-tariff barriers are erected in order to avoid the negation oflegitimate non-economic objectives. Despite the fact that it promotes liberalism, the European Union, inaccordance with constituent treaties, protects non-market values which are hardly defended in WTO.Achieving this double objective is sought through european conventional practice. The latter isdominated by the conclusion of bilateral agreements with different regions through the world. The coreobjective is to « manage globalization ». In this context, three legal orders interact in the explanation ofthe european conventional practice of non-tariff barriers : the « order of bilateral agreements », the oneof « European Union » and the last of « WTO ».

Investigates to what extent international trade and investment policies affect the labour rights of EPZ (Export Processing Zones) workers in Kenya. Audit the existing legal and policy framework for labour protection in Kenya and determines the extent to which the labour rights of EPZ workers in Kenya are protected. Also examines whether whether the EPZs are beneficial to Kenya and identify ways in which the labour rights of EPZ workers can be protected. / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2007. / A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law University of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Law (LLM in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa). Prepared under the supervision of Prof Hani Sayed of the American University in Cairo, Egypt. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/ / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

The Non-Agricultural Market Access Negotiations (NAMA) are being undertaken as part of the Doha Round of negotiations. NAMA negotiations are aimed at the trade liberalisation of industrial goods. Pursuant to the ‘development agenda’ adopted for the Doha Round, the NAMA negotiations also emphasise the development component. Particular emphasis is be made on tariff reductions in products of export interest to developing countries and the negotiations are to take special account of the needs and interests of developing countries, including through less than full reciprocity in accordance with the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provisions on special and differential treatment (SDT). This research attempts to determine this ‘development agenda’ through the prism of special and differential treatment as provided for in the NAMA mandate. An analysis of the SDT provisions in the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and their application within the multilateral trading system reveals that SDT is a very controversial concept. Developing countries have used SDT to escape the strictures of multilateral trading rules and developed countries have used it as a ‘carrot and stick’ tool, to gain concessions from developing countries in other areas. SDT has further been revealed as a concept whose meaning and content is not very precise. While the provisions in the GATT as well as the Enabling Clause make good political and economic sense, they are not really actionable. This is because the concept is characterised by best-endeavour provisions that lack any legal force and cannot be adjudicated in the WTO Dispute Settlement Body. Developed countries have thus not been called and cannot be called, legally, to account for lack of delivery on their commitments and obligations with regard to SDT. This has effectively constrained the use of SDT as a development tool within the WTO, and, being the only tool being utilised, there needs to be found an alternative way to address development needs in the WTO. The WTO has sought to address this through efforts to amend SDT to make it more precise, effective and operational. The content and meaning of the ‘development agenda’ itself in the Doha Round is very elusive and an effort is made in this paper to determine the appropriate meaning of development in relation to the multilateral trading system. Development as an objective in the WTO is not novel to the Doha Round. The WTO is littered with references to development and the betterment of the human condition in its preamble to agreements and other provisions. Development has to be considered in al its three dimensions: social, political and economical. While this paper does not advocate that the WTO become a fully fledged development institution, it can shape its development agenda in such a way that benefits on the economic front are designed to stimulate socio-economic development as well. An analysis of the NAMA modalities reveals that mercantilist objectives have triumphed in the negotiations and SDT has been lost by the wayside. Developed countries have sought for radical tariff reductions on the part of developing countries, with meagre flexibilities that are further constrained by requirements that no full sector be excluded from the formula cuts. SDT has not been considered and the commitments are not proportional to the development capacity of most developing countries. This is in direct contradiction to the SDT provisions in the GATT that are supposed to guide the negotiations as well as the provision on tariff negotiations. However, the modalities are not legally contestable because the SDT provisions do not hold any legal suasion. The NAMA negotiations reveal a development vacuity within the WTO that needs to be resolved by other means other than the traditional SDT. Taking into consideration the evolving power bases and the politics of the membership of the WTO, this is an imperative. This paper proposes that Aid for Trade is the best option available to the WTO system. The concept does find support in GATT/WTO provisions on SDT and can be modified to be more predictable and sustainable. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

The paper examines through a legal analysis of some articles of the Cote d’Ivoire Stepping Stone Agreement, how ECOWAS can strengthened its approach in negotiating a comprehensive EPA for the region. These articles are scrutinized with a special focus on market access as to point out fields that need to be re-thinked with regard objectives set out in the agreement. It is argue that current bilateral and multilateral Trade and Investment Agreements are shrinking in their legal framework the policy space need for development in countries that need it the most. This study, underlines the fact that the legal provisions contain in the Cote d’Ivoire IEPA do reduce actually its ability to set up policies tool aim at achieving development goals. It is the sustainability of the IEPA legal provisions that is questioned under this topic with regard to sensitive issues such as the safeguard measures, the stand still clause, the MFN clause, the Rules of Origin etc….. In so doing, the analysis reveals as well the ambiguity of the IEPA relationship with the Cotonou Agreement and the multilateral trade rules of the WTO. This ambiguity is highlighted in an attempt to drawn the attention of the region on the fact that; if there is indeed a need to update the Economic Partnership Agreement currently negotiating with the EC, this cannot be done without first of all updating the negotiating approach of the region. In fact, its weak bargaining approach coupled with that overwhelming of the EC has resulted in the agreement currently on the table. Substantial changes can be made with this regard by acknowledging the insufficiencies in the legal framework of the IEPA but also in learning lesson from mistakes the region itself and Cote d’Ivoire have done in negotiating EPAs and its Interim version. Thus, since EPAs often triggered the debate on liberalization and what it may carry in terms of consequences on developing countries’ economies, examples of countries that took a different step toward liberalization and whose current situation may be use as a testimony by ECOWAS are quoted. Finally, propositions are made to ECOWAS region as to enlarge current development space while battling for more flexibility under the EPA. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

Dans cette thèse, nous étudions l'effet de la répartition inégale des ressources naturelles entre les pays sur trois aspects principaux. Dans le premier chapitre, nous examinons empiriquement les effets asymétriques potentiels de l'adhésion à l'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce (OMC) entre les membres, en nous concentrant spécifiquement sur les pays en développement. Les résultats suggèrent que l'adhésion à l'OMC a contribué à l'augmentation des exportations de tous les pays, à l'exception des pays non-émergents riches en ressources. En revanche, les pays émergents riches en ressources sont les plus grands bénéficiaires de l'accession à l'OMC. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous explorons empiriquement l'impact de la dotation en ressources naturelles sur les gains de six Accords Commerciaux Régionaux (ACR) entre les membres à travers trois axes : la complémentarité entre les pays, la diversification des pays riches en ressources ainsi que la création et le détournement des échanges. Nous concluons que la complémentarité entre les pays riches et les pays pauvres en ressources a été atteinte dans les accords de l’ECOWAS, du SADC et du CIS. Les résultats indiquent également que, dans tous les ACR, les pays riches en ressources ont accru leurs exportations hors secteurs des ressources naturelles et diversifié ainsi leurs structures d'exportation, en particulier avec les partenaires régionaux. En outre, dans la plupart des ACR, les pays pauvres ont accru leurs exportations vers leurs partenaires riches en ressources, tandis que ces derniers souffrent du détournement des échanges en termes d'importations. Dans le dernier chapitre, nous étudions l'impact de la dotation en ressources naturelles sur le processus de convergence entre les pays du PAFTA. Premièrement, les résultats démontrent que la sigma-convergence n'était observable qu'entre 1970 et 1990 dans les pays du PAFTA. De plus, l’estimation révèle que les ressources naturelles sont l'un des principaux déterminants de la convergence conditionnelle au sein du PAFTA. Par conséquent, l'asymétrie entre les pays en termes de dotation en ressources naturelles n'a pas empêché la convergence dans le PAFTA. L'analyse de la convergence des clubs a identifié trois principaux clubs parmi les pays du PAFTA. En outre, les facteurs qui ont déterminé la formation des clubs sont les ressources naturelles, la qualité des institutions et l'investissement. Par ailleurs, une abondance de ressources naturelles n'est pas suffisante pour être le meilleur club, mais doit être accompagnée d'institutions de qualité. / In this thesis, we examine the effect of the unequal distribution of natural resources between countries on three main aspects. In chapter one, we empirically examine potential asymmetric effects of the accession of the World Trade Organization (WTO) across members, focusing specifically on the developing countries. The results suggest that membership in the WTO contributed to greater exports for all countries, except for non-emerging resource-rich countries. In contrast, emerging resource-rich countries are the greatest beneficiaries from the accession of the WTO. In chapter two, we empirically explore the impact of natural resource endowments on the gains of six Regional Trade Agreements (RTA) across members through three axes: complementarity between countries, diversification of resource-rich countries, and trade creation and diversion. We conclude that the complementarity between resource-rich and resource-poor countries has been achieved in the ECOWAS, SADC and CIS agreements. The results also indicate that in all RTAs, the resource-rich countries increased exports in non-natural resource sectors and thereby diversified their export structures, especially with regional partners. Moreover, in most RTAs, poor countries boosted their exports to resources-rich partners, while resource-rich countries suffer from trade diversion in terms of imports. In the last chapter, we study the impact of natural resource endowments on the process of convergence among PAFTA countries. First, the results demonstrate that sigma-convergence was only observable between 1970-1990 among PAFTA countries. The estimation reveals that natural resources are one of the main determinants of conditional convergence within PAFTA. Therefore, the asymmetry between countries in terms of natural resource endowment did not impede the convergence in PAFTA. Club convergence analysis identify three main clubs among PAFTA countries. In addition, the factors that determined clubs’ formation are natural resources, quality of institutions, and investment. Further, an abundance of natural resources is alone not enough to be the best club, but must be accompanied by high-quality institutions.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-24T04:09:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Folha de Rosto.pdf: 1353106 bytes, checksum: 418e6e605676f643e0d1b2afc719794e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-04-10 / With the development of the international trade, the quarrels became constant around the forms of regulation and the solution of conflicts between the nations, in this context appears the World Trade Organization (WTO). Before entering the study of the OMC and of its methods of solution of conflicts, it is necessary investigate the history of the development of the international trade before and after the Second World War I, and the multilateral organisms with emphasis in the General Agreement of Commerce and Tariffs (GATT). The ways of solution of international conflicts are object of the study, as much its historical part, as the current one, having as main focus the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) of the WTO. As much in the historical part as in the part of the methods of international solution of conflicts, the participation of the developing countries is studied. And, is made studies of cases of the performance of the developing countries in some demands proposal before the DSB. Of this form, the work demonstrated as it was the participation of the developing countries in the development of the international trade and in the DSB of WTO / Com o desenvolvimento do comércio mundial, às discussões em torno das formas de regulação do mesmo e da solução de conflitos entre as nações tornou-se uma constante, neste contexto surge a Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC) Antes de ingressar no estudo da OMC, propriamente dito, e de seus métodos de solução de conflitos, é necessário perquirir a história do desenvolvimento do comércio internacional antes e após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, e os organismos multilaterais criados, com ênfase no Acordo Geral de Comércio e Tarifas (GATT). Os meios de solução de conflitos internacionais são objeto do estudo, tanto sua parte histórica, como a atual, tendo como foco principal o Órgão de Solução de Conflitos (OSC) da OMC. Tanto na parte histórica como na parte dos métodos de solução de conflitos internacional, a participação dos países em desenvolvimento (PED) é objeto de análise. E, são feitos estudos de casos da atuação dos países em desenvolvimento em algumas demandas proposta perante o OSC. Desta forma, o trabalho demonstrou como foi a participação dos PED no desenvolvimento do comércio internacional e no OSC da OMC

Magister Legum - LLM / The provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT 1994) generally give favourable consideration to developing and least developed countries.1 Firstly, at the core of these provisions is the principle of special and differential treatment of these countries. As such developing countries are to meet their obligations under the WTO agreements as and when the special needs of their economies permit. The GATT 1994 provisions exempt least developed countries from participating in the obligations under the WTO agreements until such a time that they attain a reasonable level of development.Secondly, the Ministerial Meeting in Doha in November 2001 adopted a development agenda (that described capacity building activities as “core elements of the development dimension of the multilateral trading system”) and called for more co-ordinated delivery of trade related technical assistance and capacity building.2 In this regard, developed members of the WTO have committed to provide technical assistance to developing and least developed members in order to build their capacity to participate effectively under the WTO.The reality of the situation on the ground is that developing and least developed countries still face a lot of challenges which hinder their full participation and realization of the benefits under the multilateral trading system. It must be appreciated, at the same time that developing countries like China and India have been active and influential in the multilateral trading system, and additionally, their economies have and are experiencing overt growth. What lessons does Africa need to learn from China and India?This study examines the causes of the poor performance of Sub Saharan Africa’s developing and Least Developed Countries in the multilateral trading system. In this regard, examples are drawn from two countries, namely, Kenya and Zambia.Further, the study examines the initiatives the WTO provides to enhance the trade capacity of its developing and least developed members. In addition, the study examines African trade capacity building initiatives such the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and the African Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF) Initiatives, as well as the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) Initiative in order to establish how these initiatives can assist in enhancing the trade capacity of developing and least developed countries.The study further examines the role of regional trade integration in enhancing the trade capacity building of developing and least developed countries. In this case, examples are drawn from the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa-Developing Countries (COMESA). In this regard, the study concludes that fully-fledged regional integration has the potential to promote economic growth and industrial development in Africa.The study also demonstrates the importance of the participation of governments and the private sector in improving a country’s participation in the multilateral trading system. This study particularly takes key interest in the crucial role of the public-private partnerships in enhancing competitive forces and competitiveness necessary to maximize trade opportunities, which in turn produces economic development.It is observed and concluded in this study that sustainably financed technical assistance and capacity building programmes have important roles to play in so far as integration of Sub Saharan Africa into the global trading system is concerned; and that developing countries in general and LDCs in particular are to be provided with enhanced Trade-Related Technical Assistance (TRTA) and capacity building to increase their effective participation in the negotiations, to facilitate their implementation of GATT/WTO rules and to enable them adjust and diversify their economies.