This PhD thesis presents an experimental investigation into the tensile properties, strengthening mechanics and failure mechanisms of three-dimensional (3D) woven composites with through-the-thickness (z-binder) reinforcement. 3D composites are being developed for the aerospace industry for structural applications in next-generation aircraft, such as wing panels, joints and stiffened components. The use of 3D woven composites in primary aircraft structures cannot occur until there has been a detailed assessment of their mechanical performance, including under tensile loading conditions. The aim of this PhD project is to provide new insights into the in-plane tensile properties, fatigue life, tensile delamination resistance and failure mechanisms of 3D woven composites with different amounts of z-binder reinforcement. Previous research has revealed that excessive amounts of z-binder reinforcement dramatically improves the tensile delamination toughness, but at the expense of the in-plane structural properties. For this reason, this PhD project aims to evaluate the tensile performance of 3D woven composites with relatively small z-binder contents (less than ~1%). The research aims to provide a better understanding of the manufacture, microstructure and tensile properties of 3D woven composites to assist the process of certification and application of these materials to aircraft structures as well as high performance marine and civil structures.

Woven (also known as textile) composites are one class of polymer matrix composites with increasing market share in aerospace, autmobile, civil infrastructure applications mostly due to their lightweight, their flexibility to form into desired shape, their mechanical properties and toughness. Due to the viscoelasticity of the polymer matrix, time-dependent degradation in modulus (creep) and strength (creep rupture) are two of the major mechanical properties required by engineers to design a structure reliably when using these materials. Unfortunately, creep and creep rupture of woven composites have received little attention by the research community and thus, there is a dire need to generate additional knowledge and prediction models, given the increasing market share of woven composites in load bearing structural applications. In this thesis, an analytical creep model, namely the Modified Equivalent Laminate Model (MELM), was developed to predict tensile creep of plain weave composites for any orientation of the load with respect to the orientation of the fill and warp fibers, using creep of unidirectional composites. The model was validated using an extensive experimental involving the tensile creep of plain weave composites under varying loading orientation and service conditions. Plain weave epoxy (F263)/ carbon fiber (T300) composite, currently used in aerospace applications, was procured as fabrics from Hexcel Corporation. Creep tests were conducted under two loading conditions: on-axis loading (00) and off-axis loading (450). Constant load creep, in the temperature range of 80–2400C and stress range of 1-70% UTS of the composites, was experimentally evaluated for time periods ranging from 1–120 hours under both loading conditions. The composite showed increase in creep with increase in temperature and stress. Creep of composite increased with increase in angle of loading, from 1% under on-axis loading to 31% under off-axis loading, within the tested time window. The experimental creep data for plain weave composites were superposed using TTSP (Time Temperature Superposition Principle) to obtain a master curve of experimental data extending to several years and was compared with model predictions to validate the model. The experimental and model results were found in good agreement within an error range of +1-3% under both loading conditions. A parametric study was also conducted to understand the effect of microstructure of plain weave composites on its on-axis and off-axis creep. Additionally, this thesis generated knowledge on time-dependent damage in woven composites and its effect on creep and tensile properties and their prediction.

Woven (also known as textile) composites are one class of polymer matrix composites with increasing market share in aerospace, autmobile, civil infrastructure applications mostly due to their lightweight, their flexibility to form into desired shape, their mechanical properties and toughness. Due to the viscoelasticity of the polymer matrix, time-dependent degradation in modulus (creep) and strength (creep rupture) are two of the major mechanical properties required by engineers to design a structure reliably when using these materials. Unfortunately, creep and creep rupture of woven composites have received little attention by the research community and thus, there is a dire need to generate additional knowledge and prediction models, given the increasing market share of woven composites in load bearing structural applications. In this thesis, an analytical creep model, namely the Modified Equivalent Laminate Model (MELM), was developed to predict tensile creep of plain weave composites for any orientation of the load with respect to the orientation of the fill and warp fibers, using creep of unidirectional composites. The model was validated using an extensive experimental involving the tensile creep of plain weave composites under varying loading orientation and service conditions. Plain weave epoxy (F263)/ carbon fiber (T300) composite, currently used in aerospace applications, was procured as fabrics from Hexcel Corporation. Creep tests were conducted under two loading conditions: on-axis loading (00) and off-axis loading (450). Constant load creep, in the temperature range of 80–2400C and stress range of 1-70% UTS of the composites, was experimentally evaluated for time periods ranging from 1–120 hours under both loading conditions. The composite showed increase in creep with increase in temperature and stress. Creep of composite increased with increase in angle of loading, from 1% under on-axis loading to 31% under off-axis loading, within the tested time window. The experimental creep data for plain weave composites were superposed using TTSP (Time Temperature Superposition Principle) to obtain a master curve of experimental data extending to several years and was compared with model predictions to validate the model. The experimental and model results were found in good agreement within an error range of +1-3% under both loading conditions. A parametric study was also conducted to understand the effect of microstructure of plain weave composites on its on-axis and off-axis creep. Additionally, this thesis generated knowledge on time-dependent damage in woven composites and its effect on creep and tensile properties and their prediction.

Three-dimensional woven composites were developed to improve the through-thickness properties which conventional two-dimensional laminate composites currently lack. However, these textile composites generally show lower in-plane mechanical properties due to fibre crimping, and also encounter modelling difficulties due to the complex geometries. In this thesis, the static and fatigue mechanical behaviour of several types of 3D woven composites were experimentally characterised, the influence of the weave architecture on the mechanical performance was revealed, and meso/macro scale numerical models with improved failure criteria were developed to simulate the tensile behaviour of the 3D woven composites. The mechanical characterisation was conducted on six woven structures under tension, compression, and flexural loading, and were also carried out on two weaves under open-hole quasi-static tensile and fatigue loading. Digital image correlation and thermoelastic stress analysis were used to characterise the strain and damage development during static and fatigue loading. The testing results showed that the angle-interlock weave W-3 had higher in-plane quasi-static properties, lower notch sensitivity, higher fatigue damage resistance, but lower delamination resistance. The meso-scale model was developed on the unit cell of the woven structure and the macro-scale model (mosaic model) was created on the testing samples. Both un-notched and notched tensile behaviour were modelled for the angle-interlock weave W-3 and a one-by-one orthogonal weave W-1, and the difference between the predicted and experimental results was within 16% for the unit cell models and within 21% for the mosaic models. A modified failure criterion was developed to better simulate the damage behaviour of the notched macro-scale model and improved the predicted notched strength by 10-20%. Whilst further experimental investigation and improvement in the modelling techniques are still required, the data presented in this thesis provided an essential update for the current 3D woven composites research, and the presented models offered the potential to predict the damage behaviour of large 3D woven structures.

Ce travail concerne l’étude et la modélisation du phénomène de multifissuration transversedes fils dans les CMC tissés. Sa connaissance est fondamentale pour déterminer soneffet sur les champs de contraintes, la progression des endommagements et la durée de viedu matériau.À partir d’observations sur des coupes de CMC, des matériaux virtuels sont développéset des essais virtuels réalisés. Différentes séquences de fissuration transverse sont simuléessur diverses microstructures de CMC. Ces simulations se substituent à des observations expérimentalesimpossibles à réaliser.Un modèle statistique de multifissuration est développé sur la base du principe dumaillon faible appliqué à une distribution ponctuelle de Poisson. Les singularités micostructurellessont représentées par des défauts dans un milieu homogène équivalent (MHE).Les modifications des fonctions de distribution au cours de la multifissuration sont modélisées.Le modèle statistique permet de réaliser un changement d’échelle à la suite duquel lamultifissuration transverse est simulée dans le MHE avec une réduction des temps de calculde l’ordre de 90%. / This work deals with the study and modeling of multiple crakcing of tows in wovenCMCs. Its understanding is fundamental to determine the effect on stress fields, the evolutionof damage and the lifetime of material.From observations on real CMC pieces, virtual materials are developed and multiplecracking virtual testing is achieved. Different scenarii are simulated on various CMC microstructures.These simulations are a substitute for impossible experimental observations.A statistical model for multiple cracking based on the weakest link principle applied to adistribution of Poisson is developed. Micostructural singularities are represented by defectsin a homogeneous medium equivalent (EHM). Modifications of distribution functions duringthe multicracking are modeled.The statistical model realizes a scale changing : transverse multicracking is simulated inthe EHM with a reduction of almost 90% for computational time.

La prochaine génération de moteur d'avion civil, LEAP, développé par Snecma (groupe Safran) et General Electric, intègrera de nombreuses innovations matériaux qui contribueront à la réduction de la consommation de carburant, d'émission de polluants et du bruit. Parmi ces innovations, l'utilisation d'aubes de turbine en CMC (Composites à Matrice Céramique) permettra une réduction significative de la masse du moteur. Les travaux présentés concernent à la fois la caractérisation du comportement mécanique de composites tissés 3D-SiC/Si-B-C et le développement d'une approche multi-échelle du comportement élastique adaptée aux structures CMC complexes. Un premier modèle à l'échelle du fil a été développé en prenant en compte la variabilité du matériau (porosité, architecture, usinage, etc...). Le modèle HPZ (Homogénéisation Par Zone) reposant sur la discrétisation du domaine d'homogénéisation permet de faire le lien entre l'échelle mésoscopique et l'échelle de la structure. / Due to their high thermo-mechanical properties and low densities, ceramic matrix composites (CMC) are candidate materials for hot parts in gas-turbine engines. Various applications have been identified for several types of CMC including C/SiC (nozzles), SiC/SiC (compressor blade) and all oxide composites (combustors). This work presented relates to both the characterization of the mechanical behaviour of woven composites 3D-SiC/Si-BC and the development of a multi-scale elastic behaviour suitable for complex CMC structures approach. A first model at the mesoscale has been developed taking into account the variability of the material (porosity, architecture, manufacturing, etc ...). The HPZ model ("Homogenisation par Zone" in French) based on the discretization of the homogenization field allows to link the mesoscopic scale and the scale of the structure.

Textile composites can be tailored to meet specific thermo-mechanical requirements for structural applications. The focus of this research is on 2x2 biaxial braided composites since they have good stiffness and strength properties. Moreover, they have potentially better impact and fatigue resistance than laminated composites. Along with good properties, they have a reduced manufacturing cost because much of the fabrication can be automated. In order to exploit these benefits, thorough understanding of the effect of various factors on their material behavior is necessary. Obtaining effective mechanical properties is the first order of concern in any structural analysis. This work presents an investigation of the effect of various parameters like braid angle, waviness ratio, stacking sequence and material properties on the effective engineering properties of the 2x2 braids. To achieve this goal, three dimensional finite element micromechanics models were developed first. Extensive parametric studies were conducted for two material systems: 1). Glass (S2) fiber / epoxy (SC-15) matrix and 2). Carbon (AS4) fiber / Vinyl Ester (411-350) matrix. Equivalent laminated materials with angle plies and a resin layer were also analyzed to compare the difference in predictions from the full three dimensional finite element analysis of the 2x2 braided composites. A full three-dimensional stress state exists in braids even for very simple loading. In order to locate the potential damage spots, the stress distributions in both the matrix and the tows were predicted. The effect of braid angle on location and magnitude of peak stresses was determined.

Current military-grade rifle body armor technology uses hard ballistic plates positioned on top of flexible materials, such as woven Kevlar® to stop projectiles and absorb the energy of the impact. However, absorbing the impact energy and stopping a rifle projectile comes at a cost to the wearer - mobility. In this thesis, a new concept for personal body armor is proposed - a semi-flexible hybrid body armor. This hybrid armor is comprised of two components that work as a system to effectively balance the flexibility offered by a soft fabric based armor with the protection level of hard plated armor. This work demonstrates techniques used to analyze and design the hybrid armor to be compliant with National Institute of Justice guidelines. In doing so, finite element analysis is used to simulate the effect of a projectile impacting the armor at various locations, angles, and velocities, while design of experiments is used to study the effect of these various impact combinations on the ability of the armor component(s) (including the wearer) to absorb energy. The flexibility and protection offered by the two component armor system is achieved by the use of proven technique and innovative geometry. For the analytical design, the material properties, contact area(s), dwell duration, and energy absorption are all carefully considered. This yields a lightweight but yet effective armor, which is estimated to weigh 36% less than the current military grade hard body armor. Using ANSYS, several simulations were conducted using finite element analysis, including a direct center impact, along with various other impacts to investigate possible weak points in the armor. In doing so, it is determined that only one of these impact locations is indeed a potential weak point. The finite element analysis continues to show that a rifle projectile impacting at an oblique angle reduces the energy transferred to the wearer by about 25% (compared to a direct impact). A design of experiments approach was used to determine the influence of various input parameters, such as projectile impact velocity and impact location. It is shown that the projectile impact velocity contributes 36% to the ability of the wearer to absorb energy, whereas impact velocity contributes only 13% to the energy absorbed by the top armor component. Furthermore, the analysis shows that the impact location is a highly influential factor (with a 69% contribution) in the energy absorption by the top armor component.

Pour optimiser les structures des aéronefs, il est maintenant nécessaire de concevoir le matériau au « juste-besoin », de façon à diminuer le ratio masse/performances. Par une bonne gestion du procédé de fabrication et un choix judicieux des matériaux constitutifs, les composites à renfort tissé et à matrice organique ont ce potentiel. Mais pour l’exploiter pleinement, de nouvelles approches adaptées à ce type de matériau doivent être développées. Pour cela, une chaîne de calcul multimodèle est proposée, permettant de prévoir les propriétés mécaniques élastiques saines ou endommagées du matériau à partir de ses paramètres de conception. Cette chaîne est établie à l’échelle mésoscopique, pour pouvoir prendre en compte la géométrie du renfort. Une procédure spéciale de création de maillages de cellules mésoscopiques de composites tissés a été développée, de façon à faire le lien entre la déformée du renfort après mise en forme, obtenue par simulation EF, et les autres modèles de la chaîne (injection de résine, cuisson du composite, comportement mécanique). Le bon fonctionnement de l’approche est montré par l’étude de deux cas-tests, un renfort de quatre plis de taffetas et un renfort de quatre plis de satin de 5, chacun compactés à différents niveaux et selon plusieurs configurations d’imbrication de plis. Enfin, pour anticiper la validation de la chaîne de modélisation, une étude expérimentale comparative entre plusieurs composites tissés compactés à différentes épaisseurs a été menée. Ce travail se place dans le cadre de la construction future d’une chaîne multiéchelle plus globale qui, parcourue dans le sens inverse, permettra de concevoir le matériau sur-mesure en fonction des performances structurales locales désirées. / In order to optimize aeronautic structures, the manufacturing process must be tailored to the structural needs, with the aim of reducing the density/performance ratio. Polymer composites with woven reinforcements offer a large flexibility due to a vast choice of constituent materials and manufacturing process parameters. However, to entirely exploit their potential, new design methods specifically adapted to this type of material have to be developed. For this purpose, a modeling chain is proposed, which is able to predict the elastic properties of the intact or damaged material, by incorporating the manufacturing process parameters. The chain is built at the mesoscopic scale, to take into account the reinforcement geometry. A special procedure to generate finite element (FE) meshes of mesoscopic representative unit cells of woven composites has been developed, which links the deformation of the reinforcement, obtained from FE calculations, to the other models of the chain (resin injection, curing, and mechanical behavior). Two materials are studied to show the potential of the modeling chain: A four ply lay-up of a plain weave and of a satin weave fabric are considered, each of them having several compaction ratios and different nesting between the plies. With the aim of a validation of the modeling chain, multi-instrumented experimental tests have been carried out on several multi-layer plain weave composites with different thicknesses. In future applications, the proposed strategy will be placed in a toolbox able to design optimum woven composite structures based on local performance requirements.

Ces travaux de thèse visent à l’application de techniques de vibrothermographie pour les matériaux composites tissés. Ces techniques, déjà développées et appliquées aux matériaux métalliques, sont basées sur la détection de l’échauffement généré dans un matériau mis en vibration en conséquence des effets viscoélastiques et des frottements des fissures. Dans la première partie du manuscrit, une technique de type CND est développée pour analyser l’endommagement diffus d’un composite tissé et pour déterminer une relation entre son état d’endommagement et son comportement thermique. Cette partie est aussi importante pour la compréhension des phénomènes qui gouvernent la vibrothermographie grâce à une première estimation des sources thermiques en jeu. Dans la deuxième partie, la vibrothermographie est appliquée à l’étude du comportement en fatigue et pour une estimation d’une limite de fatigue des composites tissés. Cette estimation diffère de l’approche mécanique classique reposant sur l’exploitation des courbes S-N parce qu’elle est effectuée en utilisant un seul échantillon et de manière beaucoup plus rapide. Elle pourra être utilisée pour mieux comprendre l’endommagement en fatigue des matériaux et pour aider les ingénieurs dans le dimensionnement des structures soumises à ce type de sollicitation. / This work aims at applying vibrothermographic techniques to woven composite materials. These techniques, already developed and applied to metallic materials are based on the detection of the heating generated in a vibrating material by viscoelastic effects and friction of the crack surfaces. In the first part of the manuscript an NDT technique is developed to analyse the diffuse damage of a woven composite and to determine a relation between its damage state and its thermal behaviour. This part is important to understand the phenomena that govern vibrothermography with a first estimation of the thermal sources. In the second part, vibrothermography is applied to study the fatigue behaviour and to estimate a fatigue limit of woven composites. This estimation differs from the standard mechanical estimation based on the analysis of the S-N curves because it is carried out on a single, unique sample and over a much shorter duration. It may be used to improve the understanding of the fatigue damage of materials and to help engineers to design structures subjected to this kind of stress.