O tradicional biodiesel de 1ª geração (produzido a partir de óleo de origem vegetal, como soja ou canola) possui muitas desvantagens e limitações como sazonalidade, uso de grandes áreas de cultivo, competição com alimentos, dentre outras. Uma alternativa são os óleos produzidos por microrganismos. Com o objetivo de otimizar a produção do óleo microbiano, o presente trabalho avaliou a produção de biomassa, lipídios e composição de ácidos graxos da levedura Yarrowia lipolytica QU21 quando cultivada em diferentes fontes de carbono (glicose e glicerol), nitrogênio (sulfato de amônio, triptona, ureia, nitrato de amônio e extrato de levedura), assim como diferentes condições de cultivo (agitação, aeração e razão carbono/nitrogênio). Dois resíduos industriais, glicerina bruta e resíduo de indústria cervejeira (FYE) também foram testados como substitutos da fonte de carbono e nitrogênio, respectivamente. Este trabalho também apresenta uma técnica de triagem de leveduras oleaginosas, de forma a quantificar os lipídios utilizando solventes menos agressivos, tanto para o manipulador quanto para o meio ambiente. A composição de ácidos graxos do óleo produzido pela Y. lipolytica QU21 quando cultivada em glicerina bruta e sulfato de amônio apresentou potencial utilização como matéria prima para o biodiesel. O uso combinado dos dois resíduos industriais pela Y. lipolytica QU21 resultou na produção de óleo com elevado teor de ácidos graxos poliinsaturados. Além de tornar o óleo microbiano da levedura Y. lipolytica QU21 uma matéria prima competitiva para a produção de biodiesel, a utilização da glicerina bruta poderia atenuar problemas ambientais, como a disposição inadequada no meio ambiente. / The traditional 1st generation biodiesel (produced from plant oils, such as soybeans and canola) has many drawbacks and limitations as season and climate-dependent cultivation, agricultural land competition for food, among others. Possible alternative oil sources is microbial oil produced by oleaginous microorganisms. With the purpose of optimizing the production of microbial oil, this study evaluated the production of biomass, lipid and fatty acid composition of the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica QU21 when grown on different carbon source (glucose and glycerol), nitrogen source (ammonium sulfate, tryptone, urea, ammonium nitrate and yeast extract) as well as different culture conditions (agitation, aeration and carbon/nitrogen ratio). Two industrial waste were also evaluated, crude glycerol and brewery waste (FYE) as surrogate carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively. This work also presents a technique for sorting oleaginous yeast in order to quantify the lipids using less aggressive solvent for both the handler and to the environment. The fatty acid composition of the oil produced by the Y. lipolytica QU21 growing on crude glycerol and ammonium sulfate showed potential use as a feedstock for biodiesel. The combined wastes resulted on microbial oil produced by Y. lipolytica QU21 with high polyunsaturated fatty acid content. Besides making the microbial oil a competitive feedstock for biodiesel production, the use of crude glycerol could mitigate environmental issues such as improper waste disposal.

O tradicional biodiesel de 1ª geração (produzido a partir de óleo de origem vegetal, como soja ou canola) possui muitas desvantagens e limitações como sazonalidade, uso de grandes áreas de cultivo, competição com alimentos, dentre outras. Uma alternativa são os óleos produzidos por microrganismos. Com o objetivo de otimizar a produção do óleo microbiano, o presente trabalho avaliou a produção de biomassa, lipídios e composição de ácidos graxos da levedura Yarrowia lipolytica QU21 quando cultivada em diferentes fontes de carbono (glicose e glicerol), nitrogênio (sulfato de amônio, triptona, ureia, nitrato de amônio e extrato de levedura), assim como diferentes condições de cultivo (agitação, aeração e razão carbono/nitrogênio). Dois resíduos industriais, glicerina bruta e resíduo de indústria cervejeira (FYE) também foram testados como substitutos da fonte de carbono e nitrogênio, respectivamente. Este trabalho também apresenta uma técnica de triagem de leveduras oleaginosas, de forma a quantificar os lipídios utilizando solventes menos agressivos, tanto para o manipulador quanto para o meio ambiente. A composição de ácidos graxos do óleo produzido pela Y. lipolytica QU21 quando cultivada em glicerina bruta e sulfato de amônio apresentou potencial utilização como matéria prima para o biodiesel. O uso combinado dos dois resíduos industriais pela Y. lipolytica QU21 resultou na produção de óleo com elevado teor de ácidos graxos poliinsaturados. Além de tornar o óleo microbiano da levedura Y. lipolytica QU21 uma matéria prima competitiva para a produção de biodiesel, a utilização da glicerina bruta poderia atenuar problemas ambientais, como a disposição inadequada no meio ambiente. / The traditional 1st generation biodiesel (produced from plant oils, such as soybeans and canola) has many drawbacks and limitations as season and climate-dependent cultivation, agricultural land competition for food, among others. Possible alternative oil sources is microbial oil produced by oleaginous microorganisms. With the purpose of optimizing the production of microbial oil, this study evaluated the production of biomass, lipid and fatty acid composition of the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica QU21 when grown on different carbon source (glucose and glycerol), nitrogen source (ammonium sulfate, tryptone, urea, ammonium nitrate and yeast extract) as well as different culture conditions (agitation, aeration and carbon/nitrogen ratio). Two industrial waste were also evaluated, crude glycerol and brewery waste (FYE) as surrogate carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively. This work also presents a technique for sorting oleaginous yeast in order to quantify the lipids using less aggressive solvent for both the handler and to the environment. The fatty acid composition of the oil produced by the Y. lipolytica QU21 growing on crude glycerol and ammonium sulfate showed potential use as a feedstock for biodiesel. The combined wastes resulted on microbial oil produced by Y. lipolytica QU21 with high polyunsaturated fatty acid content. Besides making the microbial oil a competitive feedstock for biodiesel production, the use of crude glycerol could mitigate environmental issues such as improper waste disposal.

Die Retrotransposonen sind ubiquitäre Komponenten des eukaryotischen Genoms. In der Hefe Yarrowia lipolytica existiert neben anderen Retrotransposonen das Retrotransposon Ylt1 (Yarrowia lipolytica retrotransposon). Dieses Retrotransposon besteht aus den flankierenden "Long Terminal Repeat" (LTR), zeta von jeweils 714 Nukleotiden und interner Region, eta von 8025 Nukleotiden. Deswegen baut die gesamte Sequenz von 9453 Nukleotiden. Der etwa Bereich enthält einen durchgängigen offenen Leserahm (ORF) (826 bis 8687 Nukleotiden, 2621 Aminosäure). Die LTR Sequenzen enthalten nicht nur TATA-Box, sondern auch ein mögliches Terminations-Signal der Transkription (TAGT) sowie ein Polyadenylierungssignal (AATAAA). Eine Primer Bindungsstelle und ein Polypurin-Bereich sind ebenfalls innerhalb der Ylt1 Sequenz enthalten. Dieses Retrotransposon enthält codierenden Bereiche für ein Gag-Strukturprotein (Gag), Protease (PR), Reverse Transkriptase (RT), RNase H (RH) und Integrase (IN). Das Retrotransposons Ylt1 kommt in verschiedenen Stämmen der Hefe Y. lipolytica vor. Die Transpositionsaktivität dieses Retrotransposon war nachweisbar. Die Aktivität des LTR-Promotors ist von der Kohlenstoffquellen abhängig. Acetat und Ethanol bewirken eine Erhöhung der Promotoraktivität auf das 4fache der basalen Aktivität. Nachdem der Ylt1-ORF unter Kontrolle des ICL1-Promotors exprimiert wurde, konnten jeweils etwa 140 kDa (mit dem Anti HA-Antikörper) bzw. ca. 74 kDa (mit Anti GFP-Antikörper) große Proteine aus den zwei DNA Konstrukte nachgewiesen werden. / The retrotransposons are ubiquitous components of eukaryotic genome. The retrotransposon Ylt1 (Yarrowia lipolytica retrotransposon) was detected in the genome of the dimorphic yeast Yarrowia lipolytica. This retrotransposon is 9453 nucleotides in length and contains two identical long terminal repeats (LTR), zeta of 714 nucleotides and internal region, eta of 8025 nucleotides. The LTR sequences contain not only TATA-Box but also predicted termination signal for transcription (TATG) and polyadenylation signal (AATAAA). The both putative primer binding site (PBS) and polypurine tract were found in the retrotransposon Ylt1 sequence. This retrotransposon contains a single open reading frame (ORF) (826 - 8687 nucleotides, 2621 amino acids), which encodes Gag protein (Gag), protease (PR), reverse transcriptase (RT), RNase H (RH) and integrase (IN). The distribution of retrotransposon Ylt1 among Y. lipolytica strains indicated that the full length elements as well as solo LTR are abundant in several strains. The transposition activity of retrotransposon Ylt1 on acetate as a carbon source was also observed. The promoter activity of the LTR sequence depends on the carbon source. Acetate and ethanol activated 4 fold from the basal activity of the LTR promoter. After expression of Ylt1-ORF under the strong inducible ICL1 promoter from two DNA constructs, which contain HA or GFP epitope, a protein about 140 kDa (with anti HA-antibody) or 75 kDa (with anti GFP-antibody) were detected.

Die Retrotransposonen sind ubiquitäre Komponenten des eukaryotischen Genoms. In der Hefe Yarrowia lipolytica existiert neben anderen Retrotransposonen das Retrotransposon Ylt1 (Yarrowia lipolytica retrotransposon). Dieses Retrotransposon besteht aus den flankierenden "Long Terminal Repeat" (LTR), zeta von jeweils 714 Nukleotiden und interner Region, eta von 8025 Nukleotiden. Deswegen baut die gesamte Sequenz von 9453 Nukleotiden. Der etwa Bereich enthält einen durchgängigen offenen Leserahm (ORF) (826 bis 8687 Nukleotiden, 2621 Aminosäure). Die LTR Sequenzen enthalten nicht nur TATA-Box, sondern auch ein mögliches Terminations-Signal der Transkription (TAGT) sowie ein Polyadenylierungssignal (AATAAA). Eine Primer Bindungsstelle und ein Polypurin-Bereich sind ebenfalls innerhalb der Ylt1 Sequenz enthalten. Dieses Retrotransposon enthält codierenden Bereiche für ein Gag-Strukturprotein (Gag), Protease (PR), Reverse Transkriptase (RT), RNase H (RH) und Integrase (IN). Das Retrotransposons Ylt1 kommt in verschiedenen Stämmen der Hefe Y. lipolytica vor. Die Transpositionsaktivität dieses Retrotransposon war nachweisbar. Die Aktivität des LTR-Promotors ist von der Kohlenstoffquellen abhängig. Acetat und Ethanol bewirken eine Erhöhung der Promotoraktivität auf das 4fache der basalen Aktivität. Nachdem der Ylt1-ORF unter Kontrolle des ICL1-Promotors exprimiert wurde, konnten jeweils etwa 140 kDa (mit dem Anti HA-Antikörper) bzw. ca. 74 kDa (mit Anti GFP-Antikörper) große Proteine aus den zwei DNA Konstrukte nachgewiesen werden. / The retrotransposons are ubiquitous components of eukaryotic genome. The retrotransposon Ylt1 (Yarrowia lipolytica retrotransposon) was detected in the genome of the dimorphic yeast Yarrowia lipolytica. This retrotransposon is 9453 nucleotides in length and contains two identical long terminal repeats (LTR), zeta of 714 nucleotides and internal region, eta of 8025 nucleotides. The LTR sequences contain not only TATA-Box but also predicted termination signal for transcription (TATG) and polyadenylation signal (AATAAA). The both putative primer binding site (PBS) and polypurine tract were found in the retrotransposon Ylt1 sequence. This retrotransposon contains a single open reading frame (ORF) (826 - 8687 nucleotides, 2621 amino acids), which encodes Gag protein (Gag), protease (PR), reverse transcriptase (RT), RNase H (RH) and integrase (IN). The distribution of retrotransposon Ylt1 among Y. lipolytica strains indicated that the full length elements as well as solo LTR are abundant in several strains. The transposition activity of retrotransposon Ylt1 on acetate as a carbon source was also observed. The promoter activity of the LTR sequence depends on the carbon source. Acetate and ethanol activated 4 fold from the basal activity of the LTR promoter. After expression of Ylt1-ORF under the strong inducible ICL1 promoter from two DNA constructs, which contain HA or GFP epitope, a protein about 140 kDa (with anti HA-antibody) or 75 kDa (with anti GFP-antibody) were detected.

Στην παρούσα ερευνητική εργασία μελετήθηκε η επίδραση της φύσης της πηγής άνθρακα και του διαλυμένου οξυγόνου στο διμορφισμό της ζύμης Yarrowia lipolytica. Για το σκοπό αυτό χρησιμοποιήθηκαν δύο διαφορετικά υποστρώματα, ένα υδρόφιλο (γλυκόζη) και ένα υδρόφοβο (ελαιόλαδο) και δύο διαφορετικοί ρυθμοί ανάδευσης (180 και 50 rpm) της καλλιέργειας για την εξασφάλιση διαφορετικών ποσοτήτων διαλυμένου οξυγόνου. Για τη διεξαγωγή των πειραμάτων χρησιμοποιήθηκε το στέλεχος Yarrowia lipolytica ACA-DC 50109, η καλλιέργεια του οποίου έγινε σε κωνικές φιάλες με ημι-συνθετικό θρεπτικό υλικό, περιοριστικό σε άζωτο, pH 6±0,5 και θερμοκρασία 28±1 oC, σε ανακινούμενο επωαστικό θάλαμο. Κατά τη διάρκεια της αύξησης του μικροοργανισμού και ανά τακτά χρονικά διαστήματα γινόταν καταμέτρηση της περιεκτικότητας της καλλιέργειας σε κύτταρα, παρατήρηση της μορφολογίας τους στο οπτικό μικροσκόπιο και υπολογισμός του ειδικού ρυθμού κατανάλωσης οξυγόνου σε αυτή. Η πειραματική διαδικασία ολοκληρώθηκε με τη λήψη εικόνων των διαφορετικών μορφών της Y. lipolytica από το Ηλεκτρονικό Μικροσκόπιο Σάρωσης. Το φαινόμενο του διμορφισμού, δηλαδή η ικανότητα του μικροοργανισμού να αναπτύσσεται είτε ως μεμονωμένα κύτταρα ζύμης είτε ως μυκήλιο, παρατηρήθηκε και με τη γλυκόζη και με το ελαιόλαδο ως πηγή άνθρακα, αλλά μόνο σε χαμηλό ρυθμό ανάδευσης της καλλιέργειας, όπου οι συνθήκες ήταν πρακτικά αναερόβιες. Η μορφολογία της Y. lipolytica ήταν παρόμοια και επί των δύο υποστρωμάτων, με τον αριθμό των ψευδομυκηλίων και αληθών μυκηλίων να είναι μεγαλύτερος στην περίπτωση του ελαιόλαδου. Γενικά, ο διμορφισμός ελέγχεται από το συνδυασμό διαφόρων περιβαλλοντικών παραγόντων, εκ των οποίων το διαλυμένο οξυγόνο φαίνεται να έχει ισχυρότερη επίδραση από αυτή της φύσης της πηγής άνθρακα, όπως συνάγεται από την παρούσα μελέτη. / In this MSc thesis, the effect of the nature of the carbon source and the concentration of dissolved oxygen on the dimorphism of the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica, was studied. For this purpose, a hydrophilic (glucose) and a hydrophobic (olive oil) substrate were used as well as two different shaking speeds (180 and 50 rpm) of the cultivation. Yarrowia lipolytica ACA-DC 50109 strain was cultivated in conical flasks, using semi-synthetic, nitrogen limited medium, at pH 6±0.5 and a temperature of 28±1 oC, in a shaking incubator. During growth cycle and at regular intervals, cell count, observation in an optical microscope and calculation of the specific oxygen uptake rate, were performed. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was also used to provide pictures of the different morphological forms of Y. lipolytica. Dimorphism, which refers to the ability of this microorganism to develop distinct cellular forms (yeast-like cells, mycelium), was observed in both glucose- and olive oil-based cultures but only at a low shaking speed, where practically anaerobic conditions prevailed. The morphology of Y. lipolytica was similar upon both substrates whereas more and larger true mycelia and pseudomycelia were noticed in the case of olive oil carbon source. Generally, dimorphism is influenced by the interplay of a variety of environmental stimuli, from which dissolved oxygen seems to have a stronger effect than the carbon source nature, as it is indicated in the present study.

Techn. Universiẗat, Diss., 2001--Dresden.

L’astine C est un peptide cyclique assemblé au cours d’un mécanisme nonribosomique par une synthétase dite NRPS (NonRibosomal Peptide Synthetase). Ce peptide nonribosomique possède des propriétés thérapeutiques intéressantes avec notamment des activités anti-tumorale et anti-inflammatoire. Jusqu’ici ce composé était exclusivement extrait à partir des racines d’Aster tataricus, une plante utilisée traditionnellement en médecine japonaise et chinoise. Récemment, une production d’astine C a été mise en évidence chez Cyanodermella asteris, un champignon endophyte de cette plante. Cette découverte ouvre de nouvelles perspectives en matière de production d’astine C, qui reste néanmoins très limitée en raison du faible taux de croissance du champignon endophyte. Au cours de cette étude, deux approches ont été développées parallèlement afin d’augmenter les taux de production de l’astine C. La première stratégie consistait à augmenter les rendements en optimisant la production homologue à partir de C. asteris. Dans cette optique, un système de culture a été établi afin de cultiver le champignon exclusivement sur un support en acier inoxydable. Ce mode de culture a favorisé à la fois le développement de la biomasse fongique et la production du composé d’intérêt. En vue d’optimiser ce procédé, l’impact de plusieurs paramètres de culture (modalité de préparation du support, type d’inoculum, pH de culture, et composition du milieu de culture) sur la production d’astine C a été évalué. Les paramètres de culture optimisés ont permis d’améliorer de nouveau les rendements en astine C, ce qui constitue une première étape dans le développement d’un procédé de production à l’échelle industrielle. En parallèle, des travaux ont été menés afin de développer un système de production hétérologue d’astine C chez la levure. Cette approche n’a pu être considérée qu’après avoir identifié, par le biais d’analyses bioinformatiques, les gènes impliqués dans la voie de biosynthèse de l’astine. Une fois ces gènes identifiés, une revue de la littérature a permis, entre autres, de dresser un bilan des outils moléculaires disponibles pour le clonage des larges séquences nucléiques codant pour les NRPSs, et de sélectionner des hôtes hétérologues appropriés. Des séquences complète ou partielle du gène codant pour l’astine synthétase ont été clonées respectivement chez Saccharomyces cerevisiae et Yarrowia lipolytica. Pour les deux levures considérées, une expression hétérologue a été constatée. Chez S. cerevisiae, la synthèse de la NRPS d’astine n’a pas pu être démontrée. En revanche, pour la première fois, la production d’une structure de type NRPS chez Y. lipolytica a pu être mise en évidence. Bien qu’aucun peptide nonribosomique n’ait été détecté, cette étude a permis de lever une partie des verrous limitant le développement d’un mode de production hétérologue d’astine chez la levure. / Astin C is a cyclic peptide assembled through a nonribosomal mechanism by a NonRibosomal Peptide Synthetase (NRPS). This nonribosomal peptide displays promising therapeutic properties including anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory activities. For decades, this compound was only extracted from the roots of Aster tataricus, a well-known plant in traditionnal japanese and chinese medicine. Recently, Cyanodermella asteris, a fungal endophyte of this plant, was demonstrated to be able to synthesize astin C. This discovery offers new opportunities for the production of this compound of interest. Nonetheless the very low growth rate of this endophytic fungus is an obstacle limiting the astin C production. In this study, two distinct approaches were conjointly considered to upscale the production rate of this compound. The first strategy was related to an optimization of the homologous production from C. asteris. For this purpose, an innovative cultivation system has been developed enabling to grow the fungus exclusively on a stainless steel support. This cultivation condition turned out to be favorable both for the fungal biomass development and for the astin C production. In order to further optimize this process, the effects of several culture parameters (i.e. support pre-treatment procedure, inoculum type, pH, medium composition) on the astin C production rates was investigated. Under optimized conditions, astin C yields were further enhanced, constituting a first step towards the development of an astin C production process at industrial scale. Meanwhile, a study was conducted in order to develop a heterologous expression system for astin C production in yeast. The identification, through bioinformatics analyses, of the genes involved in the astin biosynthesis was a precondition for the development of this approach. Once these genes have been identified, a literature review has enabled to compile the molecular tools applicable for the cloning of NRPS long lenght sequence, and to select a proper host to heterologously express them. The whole sequence or a truncated one have been transfered respectively to Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Yarrowia lipolytica. In boh considered yeasts, a heterologous expression of the foreign sequences was confirmed. In S. cerevisiae, the synthesis of the astin NRPS could not be demonstrated. On the other hand, in Y. lipolytica, for the first time, the production of a NRPS-type structure was detected. Although no nonribosomal peptide was detected, this study enabled to overcome several of the hurdles limiting the development of a astin heterologous production way in yeast.

Yarrowia lipolytica appartient à un groupe de levures qui a divergé très tôt dans l'arbre des hémiascomycètes. Cette levure est capable d'utiliser, comme seule source de carbone, des substrats hydrophobes très variés et est capable de synthétiser de nouveaux acides gras libres à partir de composés non hydrophobes. Ces caractéristiques font de Y. lipolytica un modèle de levure hémiascomycète pour l'étude du métabolisme des lipides. Sa capacité oléagineuse est facilitée par l'expansion de familles de protéines ayant eu lieu au cours de l'évolution après la divergence du clade Yarrowia. En effet, parmi les 204 gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme des lipides dans Y. lipolytica, plus de 67% sont regroupés dans 30 familles multigéniques avec un maximum de 16 membres pour la famille de la lipase. Le récent séquençage de génomes 5 dans le clade Yarrowia a permis de comparer leur contenu génétique. L'étude des familles de gènes du métabolisme des lipides a permis de mettre en évidence les mécanismes impliqués dans l'évolution de ce clade. Toutes les fonctions nécessaires pour le métabolisme des lipides sont présentes dans toutes les espèces étudiées, avec au moins un gène par famille, même pour les espèces qui ont de 500 à 1000 moins de gènes que Y. lipolytica. Ces espèces se sont d'ailleurs révélées être toutes oléagineuses, grâce à des études physiologiques. Les familles de gènes observées proviennent de multiples duplications de gènes dont chaque exemplaire évolue indépendamment par différents processus de sub- ou neofonctionalisations, fixations, pseudogénisations ou pertes. Les contractions et expansions de familles de protéines, l'expression des gènes, la synténie et la localisation relative des gènes dans le génome ont été étudiés. Plus particulièrement, la pression de sélection agissant sur ces familles de gènes a été comparée à celles agissant sur le reste du génome. La combinaison de ces approches, physiologie, génomique et transcriptomique, a permis d'améliorer la compréhension du métabolisme lipidique, de son évolution et de la régulation des gènes dans un clade des levures oléagineuses. / Yarrowia lipolytica belongs to a group of yeasts that have diverged very early from most other hemiascomycetous yeasts. This yeast is able to use various hydrophobic substrates as unique carbon source and to synthesize new free fatty acid from non hydrophobic compounds. These characteristics make Y. lipolytica a known oleaginous model for the lipid metabolism survey of yeasts. Its oleaginous capacity is facilitated by protein family expansions that occurred across evolution after the divergence of the Yarrowia clade. Indeed, among 190 genes involved in the lipid metabolism in Y. lipolytica, more than 67% are grouped into 30 multigenic families with up to 16 members in the lipase family. The recent sequencing of 5 genomes within the Yarrowia clade enabled to compare their gene content. The study of gene families of the lipid metabolism allowed to highlight the evolutionary mechanisms involved in this clade. All the functions necessary to lipid metabolism are present in all species studied with at least one gene per family even for species that have 500 to 1,000 fewer genes than Y. lipolytica. These species are also found to be all oleaginous through physiological studies. The observed gene families derive from multiple gene duplications of which each copy evolves independently by different processes of sub- or neofunctionalisation, fixation, pseudogenization or loss. Contractions and expansions of protein families, gene expression, synteny and relative localisation of genes in the genome were investigated. More particularly, the selection pressure acting on these gene families was compared with those acting on the rest of the genome. The combination of these approaches, physiology, genomics and transcriptomics, has improved the comprehension of the lipid metabolism, its evolution and gene regulation within a clade of oleaginous yeasts.

A levedura Yarrowia lipolytica tem sido muito investigada, especialmente por ser um microrganismo oleaginoso, ou seja, capaz de acumular grandes quantidades de lipídios, o que ocorre majoritariamente em organelas denominadas partículas lipídicas. Estes lipídios apresentam várias potenciais aplicações biotecnológicas, como por exemplo na produção de óleo microbiano (single cell oil) e na produção de biodiesel. Durante este projeto de mestrado, objetivou-se estudar a fisiologia de duas linhagens da levedura Y. lipolytica, sendo uma tradicionalmente estudada pela comunidade científica internacional (linhagem w29) e outra isolada da Baía da Guanabara, no Rio de Janeiro (linhagem IMUFRJ 50682). Foram realizados cultivos em frascos agitados tipo Erlenmeyer com defletores tampados com algodão (volume total 500 mL, volume de meio 100 mL, 28 oC e 200 rotações por minuto), durante os quais foi possível: 1) escolher um meio de cultivo de composição totalmente definida, com tiamina como único fator de crescimento, adequado a estudos de fisiologia quantitativa com esta levedura; 2) verificar que Y. lipolytica não é capaz de crescer com sacarose ou xilose como única fonte de carbono; 3) verificar que Y. lipolytica cresce com velocidade específica de crescimento máxima (Máx) de 0,49 h-1 num meio complexo contendo glicose, extrato de levedura e peptona (meio YPD), 0,31 h-1 em meio definido com glicose como única fonte de carbono e 0,35 h-1 no mesmo meio, mas com glicerol como única fonte de carbono, sem excreção de metabólitos para o meio de cultivo; 4) verificar que ocorreu limitação por oxigênio nos cultivos em frasco agitado, sendo este o motivo pelo qual as células deixaram de crescer exponencialmente; 5) verificar que o uso de ureia, em vez de sulfato de amônio, como fonte de nitrogênio, contribui para uma variação menor do pH durante os cultivos, sem prejuízo ao crescimento da levedura; 6) observar que, ao se restringir a oferta de nitrogênio à levedura (aumento da relação C/N inicial no meio de 12,6 para 126), as células têm sua morfologia alterada e apresentam maior quantidade de partículas lipídicas; 7) determinar uma composição elementar para a biomassa de Y. lipolytica (CH1,98O0,58N0,13), em que os átomos de carbono encontram-se em média mais reduzidos do que na biomassa de leveduras como Saccharomyces cerevisiae e Dekkera bruxellensis. Foram também realizados cultivos em biorreator em batelada (1 L de volume útil, 28 oC, aerobiose plena e pH controlado em 5,0), durante os quais foi possível: a) estabelecer um protocolo de cultivo para Y. lipolytica em biorreator (que envolvem agitação mecânica, aeração e uso de anti-espumante, entre outras diferenças em relação aos cultivos em frasco); b) confirmar os valores dos principais parâmetros fisiológicos apresentados por esta levedura, anteriormente obtidos a partir de cultivos em frasco; c) confirmar que o fator de conversão de substrato a células (Yx/s) é maior para cultivos realizados com glicerol como fonte única de carbono (0,53 g/g para a linhagem IMUFRJ 50682), do que com glicose (0,48 g/g para a mesma linhagem). Finalmente, cultivos realizados em quimiostato com glicerol como fonte de carbono e energia, limitados por amônio (fonte de nitrogênio, relação C/N 126), às vazões específicas de 0,25 h-1 e 0,15 h-1, permitiram observar que o número de partículas lipídicas por célula de Y. lipolytica permaneceu em torno de 2 em ambas as situações e houve uma diminuição no teor de nitrogênio nas células quando a velocidade específica de crescimento diminuiu de 0,25 para 0,15 h-1. / The yeast Yarrowia lipolytica has been intensively investigated, especially for being an oleaginous microorganism, thus possessing the capacity of accumulating high amounts of lipids, which mainly takes place in organeles known as lipid bodies. These lipids present several potential biotechnological appications, as in the production of single cell oil or biodiesel. During this research project, we aimed at investigating the physiology of two Y. lipolytica strains: w29, traditionally investigated by the international scientific community, and IMUFRJ 50682, isolated from the Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro. Shake-flask cultivations in baffled Erlenmeyer flasks (total volume 500 mL, liquid volume 100 mL, 28 oC and 200 rotations per minute) with cotton stoppers were carried out and allowed us to: 1) choose a fully defined cultivation medium, in which tiamine is the sole growth factor, suitable for quantitative physiological studies with this yeast; 2) verify that Y. lipolytica is not capable of growing on sucrose or xylose as the sole carbon source; 3) observe that Y. lipolytica grows with a maximum specific growth rate (MAX) of 0.49 h-1 in a complex medium containing glucose, yeast extract and peptone (YPD medium), 0.31 h-1 in a defined medium with glucose as the sole carbon source, and 0.35 h-1 in the same medium, but with glycerol as the sole C-source, without excreting metabolites to the cultivation medium; 4) verify that oxygen limitation took place during our shakeflask cultivations and that this caused cells to leave the exponential growth phase; 5) verify that urea can substitute ammonium as the sole nitrogen-source for Y. lipolytica, keeping pH variations less pronounced, without compromising cell growth; 6) observe that cells presented an altered morphology and higher amounts of lipid bodies, when less nitrogen was added to the medium (C/N ratio increased from 12.6 to 126); 7) determine an elemental composition for the biomass of Y. lipolytica (CH1,98O0,58N0,13), in which the average carbon atom was more reduced with respect to the biomass of yeasts such as Dekkera bruxellensis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Bioreactor cultivations in batch mode (working volume 1 L, 28 oC, full aerobiosis and pH controlled at 5.0) were also carried out, which allowed us to: a) define a protocol for the cultivation of Y. lipolytica in this system (which involves mechanical agitation, aeration and the use of anti-foam, among other differences with respect to shake-flask cultivations); b) confirm the main physiological parameters presented by this yeast, previously obtained from shake-flask cultivations; c) confirm that the biomass yield on substrate (Yx/s) is higher on glycerol than on glucose (0.53 g/g and 0.48 g/g, respectively). Finally, N-limited chemostat cultivations with glycerol as the carbon and energy source and ammonium as the N-source were also performed (dilution rates of 0.25 h-1 and 0.15 h-1, C/N ratio in the medium of 126), allowing us to verify that the number of lipid particles per cell is around 2 under both conditions and that there was a decrease in the N content in the cells when the specific growth rate decreased from 0.25 to 0.15 h-1.

Biodiesel é um biocombustível que consiste na mistura de ésteres monoalquílicos de ácidos graxos de cadeia longa. O processo usual de produção deste combustível é a transesterificação de óleos vegetais com álcoois de cadeia curta. Nesse processo, a matéria prima deve conter baixo conteúdo de ácido graxos livres ( ≤ 1%) e água (≤ 0,5%). Como alternativa ao processo de transesterificação, destaca-se o emprego de matérias-primas de baixo custo, com elevado teor de ácidos graxos livres, para a síntese de ésteres alquílicos através de reações de esterificação. As reações de produção do biodiesel podem ser catalisadas por via química (ácida e básica) ou enzimática. Na catálise enzimática, os biocatalisadores empregados são as lipases, que catalisam a hidrólise e síntese de ésteres e podem ser obtidas a partir de microrganismos, plantas ou tecido animal, sendo as de origem microbiana as mais utilizadas. O objetivo principal deste trabalho foi avaliar o potencial da lipase de Yarrowia lipolytica, uma levedura não convencional, na síntese de ésteres do ácido oleico visando à obtenção de ésteres alquílicos (biodiesel). Foram estudados os efeitos da temperatura (25, 30, 35, 40, 50 e 60oC), do teor enzimático (5, 10, 20, 30 e 40% v/v) e do tipo de álcool (metanol, etanol, n-propanol e n-butanol ) nas reações de esterificação do ácido oleico empregando o extrato enzimático líquido produzido por Yarrowia lipolytica. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que as reações conduzidas a 30oC e com 10% v/v do extrato enzimático apresentaram maior taxa inicial de reação. Também foi avaliada a utilização do extrato enzimático liofilizado (5% m/v) e do PES (produto enzimático sólido) (5% m/v) de Yarrowia lipolytica na reação de esterificação do ácido oleico com n-butanol a 30oC. O maior consumo de ácido oleico ocorreu na reação conduzida com o PES. O efeito da temperatura (25, 30, 35, 40 e 50oC) na síntese de oleato de butila foi, então, investigado nas reações empregando PES como biocatalisador e a maior conversão de ácido oleico foi verificada na temperatura de 40oC / Biodiesel is a biofuel which consists in a mix of monoalkylesters from long chain fatty acids. The usual method of producing this fuel is transesterification of vegetable oils with lower alcohols. In this process, the raw material should have a low content of free fatty acid (≤ 1%) and water(≤ 0.5%). As an alternative to the transesterification process stands out the use of low cost raw materials with high content of free fatty acids for the synthesis of alkyl esters through esterification reactions. Reactions for biodiesel production can be catalyzed chemically (acid and basic) or enzymatic. In enzymatic catalysis biocatalysts employed are lipases which are enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis and ester synthesis and can be obtained from microorganisms, plants and animal tissue and the most widely used is from microbial origin. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of Yarrowia lipolyticas lipase a non-conventional yeast on the synthesis of esters of oleic acid in order to obtain alkyl esters (biodiesel). Effects of temperature (25, 30, 35, 40, 50 and 60oC) enzyme content (5, 10, 20, 30 and 40% v/v) and type of alcohol (methanol, ethanol, n-propanol and n-butanol) were studied in the esterification reactions of oleic acid employing enzymatic liquid produced by Yarrowia lipolytica. The results demonstrated that reactions conducted at 30oC and with 10% v/v of the enzyme extract showed higher initial reaction rate and higher conversion of oleic acid for all alcohols studied. Use of lyophilized enzyme extract (5%w/v) and SEP(solid enzymatic product) (5% w/v) from Yarrowia lipolytica was also evaluated in the esterification reaction of oleic acid with n-butanol at 30oC. The higher consumption of oleic acid has occurred in the reaction conducted with SEP. The effect of temperature (25, 30, 35, 40 and 50oC) in the synthesis of butyloleate was then investigated in reactions employing SEP as biocatalyst, and the higher conversion of oleic acid was observed at 40oC