<p>Three studies focus on an intriguing paradox in the associations between gender, friendship quality, and loneliness, and examine whether gender differences in friendship expectations help explain why the paradox occurs. Study 1 (n = 1761 college undergraduates) documents the three elements of this paradox: (1) females reported higher levels of various positive features in their friendships than did males; (2) higher levels of positive friendship features were associated with lower levels of loneliness; and (3) males and females reported similar levels of loneliness. Consistent with this paradox, when friendship features were statistically controlled, a statistical suppression effect was found such that females reported higher levels of loneliness than did males. </p><p>Study 2 (n = 1008 young adults aged 18 to 29) replicated each of the findings from Study 1 using a revised and expanded measure that reliably assessed a broader set of distinct friendship features. In addition to measuring friendship features and loneliness, Study 2 also examined friendship satisfaction, and here too a striking suppression effect emerged. Specifically, although females reported slightly higher levels of friendship satisfaction than did males, females reported lower levels of friendship satisfaction than did males when friendship features were statistically controlled. Another noteworthy finding was that several friendship features were more strongly related to friendship satisfaction for females than they were for males, suggesting that females may be more "sensitive" to subtle variations in friendship features than are males. </p><p>Study 3 (n = 419 young adults aged 18 to 29) further replicated the suppression effects observed in Studies 1 and 2, and was designed to learn whether gender differences in friendship expectations would help explain the paradox and suppression effects. Two different facets of friendship expectations were hypothesized and assessed with newly developed, highly reliable measures of each facet. The first facet, referred to as "feature-specific friendship expectations," focused on the degree to which individuals expect a best friendship to be characterized by each of the friendship features that were assessed in Study 2. The second facet, referred to as "feature-specific friendship standards," focused on identifying where individuals "set the bar" in deciding whether or not a friend's actions have fulfilled expectations in various friendship feature domains. </p><p>Gender differences were found for both facets of friendship expectations with females generally having higher expectations for their friends than did males. The two facets were only moderately correlated, and related in distinct ways to other variables of interest. Findings indicated that higher levels of feature-specific friendship expectations were generally associated with more positive functioning in the social domain (i.e., higher levels of positive friendship features and friendship satisfaction), whereas higher levels of feature-specific friendship standards were associated with potentially more problematic functioning (i.e., more negative responses to ambiguous violations of friendship expectations). </p><p>Study 3 also tested the hypothesis that discrepancies between feature-specific friendship expectations and the quality of a person's best friendship on each of the same features are associated with loneliness and also with friendship satisfaction. Polynomial regression analysis, rather than the traditional difference score approach, was used to test this hypothesis. The discrepancy hypothesis was not supported with regard to either loneliness or friendship satisfaction; possible explanations for this finding are discussed. </p><p>Together, findings from the three studies provide evidence of the replicability of the observed paradox, identify friendship quality as a suppressor variable on gender differences in loneliness and friendship satisfaction, and provide evidence for the existence of two distinct facets of friendship expectations. Results from this dissertation suggest important directions for future research designed to better understand the linkages among gender, social cognition, and social experience in contributing to emotional well-being for young adults.</p> / Dissertation

This study investigated the relationships between a history of adolescent depression and social skills in young adulthood. Participants between the ages of 22 and 30 reported past and present experiences with depression and completed assessments of three aspects of social skills: emotional understanding, strength of social relationships, and interpersonal competence. Results indicated an association between current depression and social skills deficits but no main effect of adolescent depression on overall social skills. However, greater emotional understanding was associated with a history of adolescent depression. An earlier age of onset predicted stronger social relationships while length of depressive episode and time since episode showed no significant relationships with social skills. Male participants showed significantly weaker social skills than female participants overall and within depressed participants. Together, these findings suggest that past depression plays a limited role in social skills after recovery and point towards further research on the specific role of emotional understanding during and after depression.

Extensive research documents the deleterious effects of being victimized by peers on adolescents’ mental health. In contrast, the impact of peer victimization on physical health remains largely unexplored. Studies suggest that peer victimization is a salient interpersonal stressor for adolescents that interferes with discrete aspects of physical health. However, past studies typically collapse the various forms of victimization together (i.e., physical, relational); examine single health indicators; and fail to test the effects of victimization prospectively. A limited understanding of the nature and course of physical health across adolescence and young adulthood also hinders the existent research. The present study tests the structure, stability, and patterns of change in a multidimensional model of physical health among a large, representative sample of young people across a six-year period and four waves of data. It then examines the concurrent and prospective associations between physical and relational victimization and physical health outcomes (physical symptoms, subjective well-being, health-risk behaviours, and health-promoting behaviours) across adolescence and young adulthood. Data from the Healthy Youth Survey (HYS) were collected four times between 2003 and 2009. Participants were 662 young people (aged 12 to 18 years at Time [T] 1; 342 girls). By T4, participants were 18 to 25 (n = 459). Age at T1 and SES were covariates, and models compared effects for males and females. Latent growth curve modeling was performed. Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the structure of five distinct health outcomes that were invariant over time and by sex. Univariate latent growth curve modeling established linear patterns of change in each health outcome across time. Peer victimization was examined as a time-varying covariate of health, whereby the repeated victimization measures predicted concurrent and longitudinal health outcomes over and above the average growth trajectory of that outcome. Each time-varying covariate model fit the data well. As expected, physical and relational victimization were associated with poorer physical health both within and across time; however, effects varied by victimization type, by sex, and by health outcome. Relational and physical victimization were associated with more concurrent physical symptoms, but only relational victimization predicted more symptoms at subsequent time points. Relational and physical victimization predicted poorer subjective health and fitness within and across time. Physical victimization was associated with poorer nutrition for the whole sample. Findings suggest that peer victimization puts adolescents at risk of several immediate and long-term physical health difficulties. This study highlights the unique effects of physical and relational victimization and that males and females respond differently to victimization experiences. / Graduate / 0622 / 0620 / ahager23@uvic.ca

Background. Despite extensive research the etiology of schizophrenia remains unclear. Whilst a substantial body of research points to a developmental component where early risk factors and maturational processes interact to culminate in psychosis during adulthood, key components and processes are yet to be confirmed. Prospective birth cohort studies, with their longitudinal data drawn from the general population, are vital to better understanding these pathways. To date, birth cohort (BC) studies have found that compared to healthy individuals, those who develop schizophrenia are more likely to display subtle deviations in certain developmental domains during infancy, childhood or adolescence. Yet there had been no recent review of these findings to identify areas of agreement, disagreement or where information was lacking. Aims. The overall aim of this dissertation is two-fold: firstly to identify and consolidate the current literature related to the antecedents of schizophrenia based on birth cohort studies; and secondly to undertake empirical studies based on an Australian birth cohort to address specific issues raised in the preceding review. Methods. The following three papers present empirical studies which use common methods based on an Australian birth cohort. Each study was based on a birth cohort of 3801 young adults born between 1981 and 1984, as part of the Mater University Study of Pregnancy and its outcomes. An extensive range of behavioural, cognitive, physical and social measures had been taken at various stages during their development namely, antenatally, at birth and six months, and at 5, 14 and 21 year follow-ups. Psychiatric diagnoses were obtained at age 21 follow-up from the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), or, if this was not available, on a self-report health outcomes checklist; this produced the outcome variable ‘screen-positive non-affective psychosis’ (SP-NAP). The association between antecedents and later SP-NAP were examined using logistic regression adjusted for potentially confounding variables (such as actual age at assessment, cannabis use in adolescence, and gender). Each study also (a) examined differences in case vs. noncase maturation over time; and (b) conducted planned sensitivity and post hoc analyses, such as for source of diagnoses and predictive validity. Analyses were performed using SAS 9.2 (SAS). Results. The main findings of the review were that BC studies of schizophrenia provide important insights into both the maturational antecedents of schizophrenia and putative risk modifying factors. Yet while some antecedents, such as neurocognitive dysfunction, have been well documented, others are less certain (such as postnatal physical growth). There are no studies based on pre-morbid attentional measures. In addition, there were no studies of developmental pathways where continuity of maturation was based on within-individual scores rather than group means. These findings led to three empirical studies based on an Australian birth cohort previously untapped in psychosis research. The first study found that higher levels childhood and adolescent general psychopathology increased the risk of SP-NAP. This effect was less clear for females and when adolescent psychopathology had been rated by mothers at the 14-year follow-up. In contrast, self-reported hallucinations at the 14 year follow-up increased the risk of SP-NAP in both sexes. Males with high psychopathology scores in both childhood and adolescence were at greatest risk, followed by males and females whose ‘social, attention and thought’ scores were either consistently dysfunctional or worsened from childhood to adolescence (3- to 13-fold risk). The second study found that altered physical growth in infancy and adulthood (increased head circumference and height) raised the risk of SP-NAP for females but not males. For cases, there was no evidence of ‘catch-up growth’, i.e., growth retardation at birth being followed by a period of rapid growth. There was also no group difference in pubertal maturation for males or females. The final study found that dysfunction in childhood and adolescent intelligence, attention and speech increased the risk of SP-NAP for males but not females. Males with persistently high scores or who worsened on measures related to childhood and adolescent attentional problems were at greatest risk of SP-NAP. Discussion. While there are some caveats, disturbed developmental antecedents – particularly psychopathology and impaired cognition in males – were more frequently identified in cohort members who developed non-affective psychosis than their peers. More specifically, this disturbed development appeared be in domains which reflect those of the adult disorder and include the possible endophenotypes of psychosis-like experiences, inattention and visuospatial dysfunction. Of interest, self-rated items during adolescence were associated with increased risk of later psychosis. Finally, developmental pathways associated with non-affective psychosis were not uniform in timing but varied depending on such factors as domain and gender. These findings stress that understanding the heterogeneity in developmental pathways is crucial to understanding the heterogeneous nature of the subsequent disorder.

The dissertation "Identity of young homeless person, its lifestyle and its motivation to change it" presents part of the results of the research grant "Psychosocial determinants of homelessness of young people", in which I contributed with Professor Vágnerová. The complete results can be seen in a monograph entitled "Homelessness as alternative existence of young people"(Vágnerová, Csémy, Marek, 2013). The dissertation attempts to describe homelessness as a process consisting of three parts. The first part ("pre-homelessness") follows primary factors of homelessness which means one person's "downfall"resulting in life on the street and reasons of homelessness. The second part ("in-homelessness") follows secondary factors that keep one person in the status of homelessness. The third part of the process ("post-homelessness") follows the reintegration process and tertiary factors which are barriers in the reintegration process. This division is being distinguished in both the theoretical as well as in the practical part. The theoretical part is divided into brief description of psychological theories, which may explain behavior of homeless people and into results of foreign research, which deal with the homelessness of young people. In the practical part we primarily follow descriptive quantitative part, which quantitatively describes life of homeless people. In the qualitative part, which is based on analysis (inspired by the Grounded Theory) of stories of former homeless people, I put together an adaptation and reintegration model of young homeless people. The findings of the quantitative part show that results of foreign research are similar to our research sample, except for some details (especially when it comes to U.S. population). The findings of the qualitative analysis discovered that respondents go through a negative impulse (devaluation of lifestyle) and through a positive impulse (discovery of a value outside of homelessness), through discovery of options how to reach this value, and how to obtain ability and skills to reach a change.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious public health concern in the United States and around the world, with adolescents and emerging and young adults most at-risk for IPV. Early experiences of IPV have far-reaching, immediate negative effects on individual health and developmental outcomes. There is a small body of research on the impact of IPV on young adults’ vocational outcomes and the links between these two factors. This study utilized prospective, longitudinal data collected nationally from 1,386 individuals to examine how IPV experiences during adolescence impact IPV experiences, depression, and substance use problems during emerging adulthood and vocational outcomes during young adulthood. It was hypothesized that (a) IPV victimization during adolescence will be associated with vocational outcomes during young adulthood; (b) IPV experiences, depression and substance use problems during emerging adulthood would mediate the relationship between IPV victimization during adolescence and vocational outcomes during young adulthood; (c) there would be a positive association between depression and substance use problems during emerging adulthood; and (d) there would be a positive association between educational attainment and employment status during young adulthood. Path analyses were performed using a Structural Equation Modeling framework to test study hypotheses. Study findings revealed that adolescent IPV victimization significantly predicted emerging adult IPV victimization, reciprocal IPV and depression, and young adult educational attainment. Emerging adult depression and reciprocal IPV mediated adolescent IPV victimization and young adult vocational outcomes. Depression and substance use problems during emerging adulthood and educational attainment and employment status during young adulthood were significantly associated. The present study provides support for the developmental cascading risks of IPV on individuals’ development over time. This study adds to the dearth of empirical research showing a relationship between early IPV experiences and vocational development for young adult men and women and the importance of assessing for different types of IPV experiences and the differential impact on mental health and vocational outcomes, for women and men, across time. These findings support the importance of identifying key mediating factors and time points that may be targeted to interrupt the accumulation of IPV risk from adolescence into young adulthood.

abstract: Young women ages 18-29 are the highest users of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in the United States. As a group, they curate and create more online content than any other adult user group (Duggan, 2014). Throughout the research literature, scholars claim that the high rate of technology use among young people is related to their developmental stage (boyd, 2014; Kuper & Mustaki, 2014; Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 2008; Turkle, 2010). The primary developmental tasks of young adults include forming an adult identity, and sustaining intimate relationships. Developmental psychologists and sociologist hypothesize that ICT’s influence developmental trajectories and outcomes (Jensen & Arnett, 2012). Given the breadth of discussion in the literature about development, and ICT use, there is relatively little research focusing on how young women interpret and internalize these experiences. The primary purpose of this study was to understand the interaction between young adults frequent online use and developmental tasks — identity formation and intimate relationships. Interviews were conducted with young women (18-29) who qualified as high users (N=22). Participants’ were interviewed twice; the initial interview used a structured schedule, providing uniformity across participants. The second interview was an informal conversation personalized to the participant’s’ interests, experiences, and opinions about the topic. Participants were recruited from across the country, and the diversity in the sample mirrors the heterogeneous nature of the emerging adult population. Two forms of qualitative analysis were used, open thematic coding and narrative analysis. Findings demonstrated the shift of the networked culture creates a highly individualized life trajectory for young people. Identity and intimacy are still the salient developmental tasks for young adults, but continue evolve throughout the life course. . Narrative analyses were used to show strengths of the critical realism theory, especially the reflexive modes, by using case examples. Lastly, the role of ICT are discussed using four primary themes— augmented relationships, disruptive networks, defining moments, and driven agency. Ultimately, this research study helps provide evidence that online spaces are relational and the interactions a part of sociality. For social workers ability to understand development experiences and other facets of social life, further research is needed. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Social Work 2016

abstract: Research has shown that a developmental process of maturing out of alcohol involvement occurs during young adulthood, and that this process is related to both young adult role transitions (e.g., marriage) and personality developmental (e.g., decreased disinhibition and neuroticism). The current study extended past research by testing whether protective marriage and personality effects on maturing out were stronger among more severe late adolescent drinkers, and whether protective marriage effects were stronger among those who experienced more personality development. Parental alcoholism and gender were tested as moderators of marriage, personality, and late adolescent drinking effects on maturing out; and as distal predictors mediated by these effects. Participants were a subsample (N = 844; 51% children of alcoholics; 53% male, 71% non-Hispanic Caucasian, 27% Hispanic; Chassin, Barrera, Bech, & Kossak-Fuller, 1992) from a larger longitudinal study of familial alcoholism. Hypotheses were tested with latent growth models characterizing alcohol consumption and drinking consequence trajectories from late adolescence to adulthood (age 17-40). Past findings were replicated by showing protective effects of becoming married, sensation-seeking reductions, and neuroticism reductions on the drinking trajectories. Moderation tests showed that protective marriage effects on the drinking trajectories were stronger among those with higher pre-marriage drinking in late adolescence (i.e., higher growth intercepts). This might reflect role socialization mechanisms such that more severe drinking produces more conflict with the demands of new roles (i.e., role incompatibility), thus requiring greater drinking reductions to resolve this conflict. In contrast, little evidence was found for moderation of personality effects by late adolescent drinking or for moderation of marriage effects by personality. Parental alcoholism findings suggested complex moderated mediation pathways. Parental alcoholism predicted less drinking reduction through decreasing the likelihood of marriage (mediation) and muting marriage's effect on the drinking trajectories (moderation), but parental alcoholism also predicted more drinking reduction through increasing initial drinking in late adolescence (mediation). The current study provides new insights into naturally occurring processes of recovery during young adulthood and suggests that developmentally-tailored interventions for young adults could harness these natural recovery processes (e.g., by integrating role incompatibility themes and addressing factors that block role effects among those with familial alcoholism). / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Psychology 2013

abstract: Accumulating evidence implicates exposure to adverse childhood experiences in the development of hypocortisolism in the long-term, and researchers are increasingly examining individual-level mechanisms that may underlie, exacerbate or attenuate this relation among at-risk populations. The current study takes a developmentally and theoretically informed approach to examining episodic childhood stressors, inherent and voluntary self-regulation, and physiological reactivity among a longitudinal sample of youth who experienced parental divorce. Participants were drawn from a larger randomized controlled trial of a preventive intervention for children of divorce between the ages of 9 and 12. The current sample included 159 young adults (mean age = 25.5 years; 53% male; 94% Caucasian) who participated in six waves of data collection, including a 15-year follow-up study. Participants reported on exposure to negative life events (four times over a 9-month period) during childhood, and mothers rated child temperament. Six years later, youth reported on the use of active and avoidant coping strategies, and 15 years later, they participated in a standardized psychosocial stress task and provided salivary cortisol samples prior to and following the task. Path analyses within a structural equation framework revealed that a multiple mediation model best fit the data. It was found that children with better mother-rated self-regulation (i.e. low impulsivity, low negative emotionality, and high attentional focus) exhibited lower total cortisol output 15 years later. In addition, greater self-regulation in childhood predicted greater use of active coping in adolescence, whereas a greater number of negative life events predicted increased use of avoidant coping in adolescence. Finally, a greater number of negative events in childhood predicted marginally lower total cortisol output, and higher levels of active coping in adolescence were associated with greater total cortisol output in young adulthood. Findings suggest that children of divorce who exhibit better self-regulation evidence lower cortisol output during a standardized psychosocial stress task relative to those who have higher impulsivity, lower attentional focus, and/or higher negative emotionality. The conceptual significance of the current findings, including the lack of evidence for hypothesized relations, methodological issues that arose, and issues in need of future research are discussed. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Psychology 2013

The thesis presents a study of young adults' ideas about romantic relationships and marriage. The theoretical part defines the issues of the young adulthood period of development, the romantic relationships and marriage. The empirical part of the thesis consists of the description of the research methodological design and its presentation together with the results interpretation, which are discussed in the context of the theoretical concepts presented in the theoretical part. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of the ideas of young adult individuals about romantic relationships and marriage. The study offers the analysis of the partners' choice criteria, the characteristics of a steady romantic relationship and of the preconditions of good and long-term romantic relationships. It was found out that young adults have an ambivalent attitude to the marriage and to the cohabitation, they realise advantages and disadvantages of both. In case of starting a family most of the young adults prefer marriage. KEY WORDS: Young Adulthood, Romantic Relationships, Marriage, Conflict Solving Strategies