Dans la seconde moitié du dix-neuvième siècle, le Sultanat de Zanzibar a été au cœur des politiques abolitionnistes et coloniales aussi bien françaises que britanniques. En effet, l’île de Zanzibar ne fut pas seulement le plus grand marché aux esclaves de l’océan Indien mais aussi la porte d’entrée privilégiée des trafiquants d’esclaves, des abolitionnistes, et des partisans de la colonisation en Afrique Orientale. Cette thèse s’intéresse aux controverses, ayant opposé la France et la Grande-Bretagne dans les eaux territoriales de Zanzibar, sur le droit de visite des bateaux transportant des esclaves ainsi que sur le droit des boutres à battre pavillon français et à échapper ainsi aux contrôles de la Royal Navy. Cette recherche souligne combien ces questions furent importantes, non seulement pour les relations de la France, de la Grande-Bretagne et du Sultanat de Zanzibar, mais aussi pour le droit international et les relations internationales jusqu’à la veille de la Première Guerre mondiale. Ce travail montre que les opérations de lutte contre la traite qui ont eu lieu à Zanzibar ont inspiré de nombreux officiers de marine, des consuls, des diplomates, des juristes, et des hommes politiques, aussi bien français que britanniques, quant à la conception et à la mise en œuvre « d’interventions humanitaires ». Ainsi l’histoire des opérations de lutte contre la traite menées dans le sultanat de Zanzibar permet d’éclairer de manière originale l’histoire du concept d’intervention humanitaire ou « d’humanité » (« intervention in the score of humanity »). Cette recherche souligne combien la nature de ces interventions humanitaires a sans cesse oscillé entre de véritables idéaux abolitionnistes et des enjeux coloniaux pressants. / In the second half of the nineteenth century the Zanzibar Sultanate became the focal point of French as well as British imperial and humanitarian policies. In fact, the island was not only the most important slave trade emporium of the Indian Ocean but it was also the great gateway to East Africa for slave traders, humanitarians, or imperialists alike. This thesis looks at the controversies which took place in Zanzibar waters between France and Britain over the right of searching vessels suspected of being engaged in the slave trade as well as the right of dhows to fly the French flag and escape the Royal Navy’s scrutiny. This research highlights how important these questions were, not only for the relations of France, Britain, and the Zanzibar Sultanate, but also for international law and international relations up until the eve of the First World War. This work demonstrates that the anti-slave trade operations which took place in Zanzibar inspired many navy officers, consuls, diplomats, Foreign Secretaries, and lawyers – whether British, French, or American – on the theory and the practice of “humanitarian interventions”. Indeed, the history of anti-slave trade operations implemented in the Zanzibar Sultanate sheds a new light on the history of the concept of humanitarian intervention, or “intervention in the score of humanity” – (“l’intervention d’humanité”) – as it was then called. This research underlines how these humanitarian interventions unceasingly swung between genuine humanitarian ideals and pressing imperial issues.

In a paper which appeared two years ago, I outlined some of the main features of the contemporary taarab world in Zanzibar, which is undergoing great changes due to economic, social and cultural factors (Aiello Traoré 2004a). A recent development that I highlighted is the vanishing of women\''s taarab clubs. The greater participation of women within the groups of taarab asilia has strated, in my view, an interesting confrontation between the tendency of conversation of the codes which are identified as \"traditional\" and the innovations proposed by female members in music and performance, as well as in the production of lyrics, an area where many women are now regularly involved. I will concentrate my analysis on the taarab lyrics being composed by Zanzibari women, which are of great interest because of the variety of cultural and social backgrounds, themes, techniques and poetical sensitivities.

Tukizingatia kona maalum mjini Zanzibar, yaani ofisini, mtaani Shangani Posta, leo hii mimi na mwenzangu Muchi tunataka kuwahadithia kuhusu kikundi cha vijana wanaoitwa mapapasi ambao wamekuwa wanafanya kazi katika sekta ya utalii tangu miaka ya Themanini, japo nafasi yao haijawahi kutambuliwa wala kurasimishwa na serikali. Badala yake, mara nyingi vijana hao wamekuwa wanaudhiwa, kupuuzwa na kuadhibiwa kwa vile wanapwaya kwenye dira ya kiserikali ya kuigeuza Zanzibar kuwa mahali pa kutalii (kwa maana ya touristic destination) pakiingizwa kwenye mikondo mikali ya kiliberali mamboleo. Muchi na mimi tunajadiliana na kusimulia (hi)stori(a) yenye pande zaidi ya mbili. Tutawafafanulia kazi ya upapasi kama ilivyokuwa zamani na sasa hivi. Pia, tutatafakari juu ya nafasi ya upapasi (na uwenyeji) mjini Zanzibar, tukichambua maana, athari na uwezo wake. Hivyo, tutazingatia nafasi kama kielelezo cha au methodolojia ya kuchambua maneno ya Kiswahili kama vile yalivyo, lile linaloliwezesha, pamoja na maana yao. Umbo lenyewe la mazungumzo linasisitiza kuwa fikra zinazotokea kwenye mahusiano yanazaliwa konani, pale ambapo hakuna anayetiliwa (na kinachotiliwa) maanani kabla hajapewa (na hakijapewa) nafasi huko huko, nafasi ambayo hatimaye ndiyo ya Muchi na yangu pia. / By exploring the microcosmos of a junction (kona) in the neighbourhood of Shangani Posta, in the city of Zanzibar, today Muchi and I will tell you the (hi)story of a unique segment of Zanzibari male urban youth, known as mapapasi, working in tourism since the 80s. While been neglected and denied an official, formal and legal recognition by the government, they have been continuously harassed, intimidated and shamed because perceived as not belonging, not fitting the governmental project of turning Zanzibar into a touristic destination. The following conversation aims at disclosing the complexity hidden behind the mainstream one-sided picture of them. Looking at the past and contemporary practices of upapasi, Muchi and I reflect on the nafasi of upapasi in urban Zanzibar and matter-forth upapasi (and uwenyeji as an instance of spatial il/legalization), their meaning and their doing. In this way, we are attentive to the wor(l)d nafasi, as analytical lens to get a sense – kusikia, kuona, kuwa na – urban Zanzibar. The very form of conversation is meant to think thoughts as they are co-constituted by and within the relationalites of the kona, whereas no-body is predetermined, rather every-body is co-constituted in the very situatedness in which also Muchi and I (be)come-with.

Organisations in the developing countries need to protect their information assets (IA) in an optimal way. This thesis is based upon the argument that in order to achieve fully effective information security management (ISM) strategy, it is essential to look at information security in a socio-technical context, i.e. the cultural, ethical, moral, legal dimensions, tools, devices and techniques. The motivation for this study originated from the concern of social chaos, which results from ineffective information security practices in organisations in the developing nations. The present strategies were developed for organisations in countries where culture is different to culture of the developing world. Culture has been pointed out as an important factor of human behaviour. This research is trying to enhance information security culture in the context of Zanzibar by integrating both social and technical issues. The theoretical foundation for this research is based on cultural theories and the theory of semiotics. In particular, the study utilised the GLOBE Project (House et al, 2004), Competing Values Framework (Quinn and Cameron; 1983) and Semiotic Framework (Liu, 2000). These studies guide the cultural study and the semiotics study. The research seeks to better understand how culture impact the governance of information security and develop a framework that enhances the governance of information security in non-profit organisations. ISO/IEC 27002 best practices in information security management provided technical guidance in this work. The major findings include lack of benchmarking in the governance of information security. Cultural issues impact the governance of information security. Drawing the evidence from the case study a framework for information security culture was proposed. In addition, a novel process model for information security analysis based on semiotics was developed. The process model and the framework integrated both social and technical issues and could be implemented in any non-profit organisation operating within a societal context with similar cultural feature as Zanzibar. The framework was evaluated using this process model developed in this research. The evaluated framework provides opportunities for future research in this area.

The increasing demand for seaweed extracts has led to the introduction of non-native seaweeds for farming purposes in many tropical regions. Such intentional introductions can lead to spread of non-native seaweeds from farming areas, which can become established in and alter the dynamics of the recipient ecosystems. While tropical seaweeds are of great interest for aquaculture, and have received much attention as pests in the coral reef literature, little is known about the problems and potential of natural populations, or the role of natural seaweed beds in the tropical seascape. This thesis aims to investigate the spread of non-native genetic strains of the tropical macroalga Eucheuma denticulatum, which have been intentionally introduced for seaweed farming purposes in East Africa, and to evaluate the state of the genetically distinct but morphologically similar native populations. Additionally it aims to investigate the ecological role of seaweed beds in terms of the habitat utilization by fish and mobile invertebrate epifauna. The thesis also aims to evaluate the potential of native populations of eucheumoid seaweeds in regard to seaweed farming. The initial results showed that non-native E. denticulatum is the dominating form of wild eucheumoid, not only in areas in close proximity to seaweed farms, but also in areas where farming has never occurred, while native eucheumoids are now scarce (Paper I). The low frequency of native E. denticulatum in seaweed beds, coupled with a low occurrence of reproductive structures, indicates that the effective population size may be low, which in turn may be a threat under changing environmental conditions. These results, combined with indications that seaweeds may be declining in East Africa, illustrates the need for attaining a better understanding of the ecological role of tropical seaweed habitats. The studies on the faunal communities of seaweed beds showed that they are species rich habitats, with high abundances of juvenile fish and mobile epifauna (Paper II and III), strongly indicating that these habitats should be considered for future seascape studies and management actions. Productivity in East African seaweed farming is decreasing, and as the current cultivation is based on a single non-indigenous haplotype, a more diverse genetic base has been suggested as a means to achieve a more productive and sustainable seaweed farming. Although our results show that East African E. denticulatum has a lower growth rate than the currently used cultivar (Paper IV), the several native haplotypes that are present in wild populations illustrates that, though a demanding endeavour, there is potential for strain selection within native populations. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript. Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

<p>Discoveries in recent years have disclosed the importance of marine cyano-bacteria in the context of primary production and global nitrogen cycling. It is hypothesized here that microbial mats in tropical coastal habitats harbour a rich diversity of previously uncharacterized cyanobacteria and that benthic marine nitrogen fixation in coastal zones is substantial.</p><p>A polyphasic approach was used to investigate cyanobacterial diversity in three tropical benthic marine habitats of different characters; an intertidal sand flat and a mangrove forest floor in the Indian Ocean, and a beach rock in the Pacific Ocean. In addition, nitrogenase activity was measured over diel cycles at all sites. The results revealed high cyanobacterial diversity, both morphologically and genetically. Substantial nitrogenase activity was observed, with highest rates at daytime where heterocystous species were present. However, the three habitats were dominated by non-heterocystous and unicellular genera such as <i>Microcoleus</i>, <i>Lyngbya</i>, <i>Cyanothece</i> and a large group of thin filamentous species, identified as members of the Pseudanabaenaceae family. In these consortia nocturnal nitrogenase activities were highest and <i>nifH</i> sequencing also revealed presence of non-cyanobacterial potential diazotrophs. A conclusive phylogenetic analysis of partial nifH sequences from the three sites and sequences from geographi-cally distant microbial mats revealed new clusters of benthic potentially ni-trogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Further, the non-heterocystous cyanobacterium <i>Lyngbya majuscula</i> was subjected to a physiological characterization to gain insights into regulatory aspects of its nitrogen fixation. The data demon-strated that nitrogenase activity is restricted to darkness, which called upon a re-evaluation of its diazotrophic behaviour.</p>

<p> </p><p>Local participation, especially in managing systems of socio- natural resources, has been promoted as the answer to the puzzle about sustainable development. Community-Based Nature Resource Management (CBNRM) is an approach that has generally praised as the way to support genuine participation of ‘local people’ and empower them through the process. This paper examines how local participation in conservation projects works in practice. To do this literature around the rise of people-centred conservation models and participation are reviewed. This information is then used to consider a CBNRM case study in Pete, Zanzibar to reveal actions that promote or constrain local participation. The conclusions of this paper suggest that without a secure means of delegated power or the ability to influence meaningful decisions it is unlikely that a community will mobilize itself for the sake of common resources. In Pete, the conditions around the establishment and operation of the CBNRM have not facilitated effective local participation, which has resulted in widespread frustration and uncertainty amongst the community.</p><p> </p> / past with distinction

Discoveries in recent years have disclosed the importance of marine cyano-bacteria in the context of primary production and global nitrogen cycling. It is hypothesized here that microbial mats in tropical coastal habitats harbour a rich diversity of previously uncharacterized cyanobacteria and that benthic marine nitrogen fixation in coastal zones is substantial. A polyphasic approach was used to investigate cyanobacterial diversity in three tropical benthic marine habitats of different characters; an intertidal sand flat and a mangrove forest floor in the Indian Ocean, and a beach rock in the Pacific Ocean. In addition, nitrogenase activity was measured over diel cycles at all sites. The results revealed high cyanobacterial diversity, both morphologically and genetically. Substantial nitrogenase activity was observed, with highest rates at daytime where heterocystous species were present. However, the three habitats were dominated by non-heterocystous and unicellular genera such as Microcoleus, Lyngbya, Cyanothece and a large group of thin filamentous species, identified as members of the Pseudanabaenaceae family. In these consortia nocturnal nitrogenase activities were highest and nifH sequencing also revealed presence of non-cyanobacterial potential diazotrophs. A conclusive phylogenetic analysis of partial nifH sequences from the three sites and sequences from geographi-cally distant microbial mats revealed new clusters of benthic potentially ni-trogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Further, the non-heterocystous cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula was subjected to a physiological characterization to gain insights into regulatory aspects of its nitrogen fixation. The data demon-strated that nitrogenase activity is restricted to darkness, which called upon a re-evaluation of its diazotrophic behaviour.

Local participation, especially in managing systems of socio- natural resources, has been promoted as the answer to the puzzle about sustainable development. Community-Based Nature Resource Management (CBNRM) is an approach that has generally praised as the way to support genuine participation of ‘local people’ and empower them through the process. This paper examines how local participation in conservation projects works in practice. To do this literature around the rise of people-centred conservation models and participation are reviewed. This information is then used to consider a CBNRM case study in Pete, Zanzibar to reveal actions that promote or constrain local participation. The conclusions of this paper suggest that without a secure means of delegated power or the ability to influence meaningful decisions it is unlikely that a community will mobilize itself for the sake of common resources. In Pete, the conditions around the establishment and operation of the CBNRM have not facilitated effective local participation, which has resulted in widespread frustration and uncertainty amongst the community. / past with distinction

<p>After the establishment of the British Protectorate in the Busa&lsquo / idi Sultanate in 1890, the British colonial administration embarked on a policy of transforming the administration of Islamic law and its institutions which included the kadhi, liwali and mudir courts. The ultimate objective of the transformation process was to incorporate such institutions into the colonial enterprise and gradually reform them. Within a span of seven decades of their colonial rule in the Busa&lsquo / idi Sultanate, the British colonial authorities managed to transform the administration of Islamic law and its institutions. Key areas of the transformation process included the formalisation of the administration of Islamic law in which procedural laws related to MPL and wakf regulations were codified. Kadhi courts and wakf commissions were institutionalised and incorporated into the colonial apparatus. In the process of transforming the kadhi courts, the British colonial authorities adopted three major policies: institutional transformation, procedural transformation, and exclusion of criminal jurisdiction from kadhi courts. The focus of the transformation process was on the curtailment of kadhis powers. By 1916 criminal jurisdiction was removed from kadhis and their civil jurisdiction was gradually confined to MPL. Other significant areas of the transformation process were the wakf institutions and slavery. Wakf institutions were related to land issues which were crucial to the colonial politics and the abolition of slavery in the Busa&lsquo / idi Sultanate was a primary concern of the British colonial administration. Through policies of compromise and coercion, the British colonial officials managed to gradually abolish slavery without causing&nbsp / political or social upheavals in the Sultanate. Due to the fact that there was no uniform policy on the transformation exercise undertaken by the British colonial officials on the ground, the reform process was marked with transformative contradictions which seemed to be a hallmark of British colonial policy in the Busa&lsquo / idi Sultanate. For instance, British colonial policies on transforming wakf institutions were caught in a contradiction in that, on the one hand, colonial efforts were geared towards transforming the land system in order to achieve economic development, and on the other hand, the British colonial officials were keen to uphold a paternalistic approach of adopting a non-interference policy in respect of religious institutions. Similarly, in abolishing slavery, the British colonial government, on the one hand, was under pressure from philanthropists and missionaries to end slavery, and, on the other hand, the British colonial officials on the ground portrayed their support of the slave owners and advocated a gradual approach to abolish slavery. Findings of this thesis reveal that the British colonial administration managed to achieve complete reform in some cases, such as, the abolition of liwali and mudir courts and confining kadhis&rsquo / civil jurisdiction to MPL, while in other areas, such as, the management of wakf institutions and the abolition of slavery, the British faced resistance from the Sultans and their subjects which resulted in partial reforms. Hence, in the process of transforming the administration of Islamic law and its institutions in the Busa&lsquo / idi Sultanate, the British colonial administration adopted a dual policy of reforming and retreating.</p>