This thesis examines the entanglements and interactions between OMG – a Charismatic Pentecostal Church and the post-colonial Zimbabwean state through an ethnographic analysis of church members' everyday lives. I focus on money and consumption, and make several arguments in an attempt to explain the rapid expansion of OMG. Whilst the study adopts a political economy approach in framing the conditions under which the church emerged, I place Pentecostal Charismatic belief and experience at the centre of the analysis. Money and commodity consumption have been creatively incorporated into OMG belief systems and doctrines at a time when the Zimbabwean economy is performing poorly, and poverty is an everyday reality for most of the population. The consumption of commodities has religious significance inasmuch as it is a critique of the post- independence government that has largely failed to improve the lives of Zimbabweans. In consuming commodities, OMG congregants set themselves apart from non-members and construct themselves as ‘blessed’ and thriving. I argue that the mismanagement of the postcolonial state has provided crevices and clefts through which OMG has emerged and grown as a proxy to the state by appropriating aspects of state and chieftaincy rituals. Secondly, OMG offers alternative social spaces for citizens to be - or to appear to be - upwardly mobile and construct a sense of common identity based on religion, history and belonging. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria 2019. / Human Economy Programme / University of Pretoria for the Post-Graduate Doctoral Bursary – Humanities / FlyHigher@UP grant / Anthropology and Archaeology / PhD / Unrestricted

Bibliography: pages 219-229. / This thesis covers the constraints, both theoretical and practical, on the growth and evolution of the Zimbabwean informal sector, in particular of informal clothing and footwear production. The aim of the study was to provide a foundation for decision-making in the intersectoral allocation of resources. To this end, a survey was conducted of over one hundred and twenty formal and informal clothing producers in Bulawayo. The questionnaire was administered and completed by the author during the course of an interview, the questions requiring specific, as opposed to open-ended, answers. The production data obtained were analysed using the Kmenta formulation of the Constant Elasticity of Substitution (C.E.S.) production function, with a view to obtaining the production parameters. The data from formal and informal sector interviewees were analysed separately and in aggregate and tested for constancy of variance, significance of parameters and explanatory power. Whilst a number of conclusions are drawn in the course of the thesis, the central finding is that allocation of scarce resources to the informal sector should be based on the standard procedures used by venture capital seeking an outlet in a normal market economy, and in particular on the ability of the entrepreneur, since this appears to be an increasingly crucial variable as firm sizes fell.

The study addresses from a sociocultural-historical, in particular a missiological and medical perspective the question if Catholic hospitals in Matabeleland, affected by the dramatic down-turn of Zimbabwe’s economy since 2000, did whatever they could to continue offering quality services to their patients. It starts with a portrayal of the emergence of secular modernity in the North-Atlantic World, as regards its view of the world as solely governed by natural laws, and of people as capable of taking destiny into their own hands, unperturbed by spiritual forces. The question is explored how the Christian Occident could end up there, following its development through the Middle Ages, and its expansion by missionary activity, by preaching the Word, but also by military force. Next, the achievements of pre-1900 Western medicine are examined, to identify if/how missionaries in Africa could have benefited. The study describes how professional medicine did not become part of the early Zambesi Mission, not because of its curative shortcomings, but for spiritual reasons, insofar as the Jesuits did not follow the European trend to let worldly well-being take the place of eternal salvation. Vis-à-vis their other-than-modern view of life, suffering, and (self-)sacrifice, the promises of medicine appeared just trivial. Submissiveness to authority, both ecclesiastical and worldly, is identified as the core principle that informed the Jesuits’ educational approach towards Africans in all their efforts at conversions. The missionaries thereby colluded with colonialist thinking, in not attempting to make their pupils grow into self-confident, independent thinkers in their own right. In this educational tradition, grafted onto a pre-modern local culture, the study finds the reason why Zimbabwean medical staff, as managers of their clinics or hospitals, have shown little readiness to proactively prioritise the intrinsic needs of their institutions and push for corrective measures, prepared even to challenge their superiors when encountering aberrations in the health system, locally as well as higher up. The study asks if the Church could have opted for a different educational approach, considering the prevailing socio-economic and cultural framework conditions; finally, which options present-day Zimbabweans have to choose from, regarding their country’s future development. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / D. Th. (Missiology)

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Research in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Demography and Population Studies Program of the Schools of Public Health and Social Sciences University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. South Africa / Background Early childbearing brings with it heightened health risks for mothers and their infants. Studies have shown that early childbearing contributes significantly to maternal mortality. Adolescent are twice as likely to experience a maternal death as older women and the likelihood is higher in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Reynolds & Wright, 2004). Utilisation of reproductive health care services has been identified as an important step towards improving maternal health, as per the Sustainable Development Goal 3 & 5 (SDG 3 & 5). Despite the high maternal mortality rates in Zimbabwe, the use of reproductive health services by adolescent women is low. The proportion of adolescent women in sexual union currently using modern contraception is 35.4%, whereas 63.6% of adolescent women who had their last birth during the five years preceding the 2010 Zimbabwe Demographic Health Survey (ZDHS) used the health facility to delivery their child (ZIMSTAT & ICF International Inc., 2012). Postnatal care (PNC) services were used by 23.3% of adolescents during the two years preceding the survey. Understanding factors influencing adolescent women’s use of reproductive health services would assist in developing appropriate reproductive health programmes aimed at improving utilisation of reproductive health services. There has been a substantial attempt to study factors influencing adolescent reproductive health care utilisation in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Very few of these studies explored the role of community-level characteristics on adolescent reproductive health care utilisation. The objectives of this thesis were (i) To examine the levels of reproductive health care utilisation by adolescents in Zimbabwe, (ii) To determine the association between micro-level variables and contraceptive use, utilisation of health facility for delivery and PNC services by adolescent women in Zimbabwe, (iii) To examine the independent effects of macro-level contextual variables on contraceptive use, utilisation of health facility for delivery and PNC services by adolescent women in Zimbabwe, (iv) To establish the moderating effects of the macro-level contextual variables on the association between micro level individual and household variables and contraceptive use, utilisation of health facility for delivery and PNC by adolescent women in Zimbabwe, and (v) To compare the overall contribution of macro-level contextual III variable effects to contraceptive use, utilisation of health facility for delivery and PNC by adolescent women with the contribution by micro-level effects. This study posits that community characteristics are more critical predictors of adolescent reproductive health care utilisation in Zimbabwe, than other individual and household characteristics. This thesis used a modified Behavioural Model of Health Service Use (BMHSU) to explain the complex effects and interactions of individual and community-level variables on the use of reproductive health care services by adolescent women in Zimbabwe. The BMHSU was originally developed by Andersen and Newman in 1973 to explore the use of biomedical health services by focusing on the individual as the unit of analysis. Lately, another version of the BMHSU model, which is similar to that of Anderson (1995), was created to illustrate utilisation of maternal health services (Wild et al., 2010). In this a multi-layered explanatory model, the authors suggest that decision-making on use of health services should be seen in the broader social context and that it should be recognised as a multifaceted process intimately tangled with local belief systems and social relationships. It emphasises the importance of the contextual effects on decision-making and access to care. The importance of community-level factors in influencing women’s decision to use health care services is also acknowledged. The models by Anderson (1995) and of Wild and others (2010) were drawn with some modification to be compatible with adolescent reproductive health service utilisation situation in Zimbabwe. The models were modified to include community-level influence on reproductive health utilisation. It shows conceptual pathways between adolescent women’s background and context (community-level) and their use of reproductive health services. Methods Data from the 2010/11 Zimbabwe Demographic Health Survey were used. The data provided both the micro-level (individual and household) variables, as well as macro-level (or contextual) variables. The dependent variables covered in this thesis included adolescent modern contraceptive use, utilisation of health facility for delivery, and use of PNC services. Macro-level variables examined in this study covered three main domains: quality of reproductive health care, barriers to health care access and socio-economic development. A total weighted sample of 452 adolescent women aged 15 to 19 years who were in a sexual union was used to analyse data for adolescent modern contraceptive use. For utilisation of health facility for delivery and use of PNC, a weighted sample of 660 women who gave birth as adolescents during five years preceding the survey was analysed. To examine the independent effects of macro-level variables and to establish their moderating effects, multilevel modelling was employed using generalised linear mixed models (GLMM). The GLMM is an extension of the generalised linear models, such as logistic regression, in which the predictors contain random effects in addition to the usual fixed effects. The model reduces chances of misestimating the significance of variables that act at different levels of the hierarchy, when compared to use of the traditional regression methods. It has the capability to entangle the contextual effects from the compositional effects when estimating parameters for hierarchical data. Results Current contraceptive use among adolescent women in sexual union stands at 35.4% and differed significantly by provinces. Both micro-level characteristics and macro-level variables explained some variation on contraceptive use between provinces. The odds of contraceptive use increased with an increase in parity (Odds Ratio (OR), 12.4). Adolescent women with high media access were slightly more than twice as likely to be using modern contraceptives compared to those with no access to media (OR, 2.1). Only one macro-level variable had independent effects on contraceptive use - the odds of modern contraceptive use by adolescent women increased with an increase in the provincial barriers to health care access (OR, 2.211). The Intra-class Correlation Coefficient (ICC) was reduced to 9% indicating that the clustering of use of modern contraceptives was related to both individual and community level characteristics. There was a significant interaction between the provincial socio-economic development index and access to media by adolescent women on use of modern contraceptives. The positive impact of high media access on use of modern contraceptives was mitigated as the provincial socio-economic development index increased. Both the micro-level and macro-level variables explained some of the variation in adolescent contraceptive use across provinces, but did not explain the variation between provinces. However, individual-level variables were more important in predicting current contraceptive use by adolescent women than provincial-level variables. V Out of the 660 women who had their last birth as adolescents during the five years preceding the survey, 63.7% used the health facility for delivery. There was significant variation across provinces and it was attributed to both the micro-level and macro-level variables. Individual characteristics associated with place of delivery included age at birth, birth order, education, religion, media access, household wealth status and level of autonomy. Macro-level or contextual variables that had independent effects on the use of health facility for delivery included the provincial socio-economic development index (OR, 2.323) and provincial barriers to health care access (OR, 2.406). The ICC was reduced to 5.2% indicating that the clustering of use of health facility for delivery was related to both individual and community level characteristics. There was a significant interaction between the provincial quality to reproductive health care and level of education on use of health facility for delivery. The positive impact of education on place of delivery for the last child by adolescent was mitigated as the provincial quality of reproductive health care increased. Macro-level variables were better predictors of the use of health facility for childbirth by adolescents than individual-level variables. The proportion of women who used PNC within 48 hours after delivery of their last child as adolescents was 23.9%. The significant variation between provinces was attributable to both micro-level and macro-level variables. Micro-level variables associated with use of PNC by adolescent women included access to media and level of autonomy. There was only one macro-level variable which had an independent effect on the use of health facility for delivery by adolescent women. Macro-level variables that had independent effects on the use of PNC was the provincial socio-economic development index (OR, 2.505). The ICC was reduced to 9% indicating that the clustering of use of PNC was related to both individual and community level characteristics. Significant interaction on use of PNC was found between provincial barriers to health care access and high media access. The positive impact of high access to media on the use of PNC by adolescent women was mitigated by an increase in the provincial barriers to health care access. Macro-level variables explained more of the cluster variation than the micro-level variables. Conclusion and Policy Implications Both individual and community characteristics determined reproductive health care utilisation outcomes. The low ICCs indicate clustering of utilisation of reproductive health care services was related to both the individual and community level characteristics. Community characteristics however were more critical predictors of adolescent use of health facility and PNC by adolescent women than individual characteristics. However, the same could not be said about the relationship between predictors of modern contraceptive use by adolescent women in Zimbabwe. Residing in provinces with a high socio-economic development index was more critical in influencing the use of health facility for delivery and use of PNC services within 48 hours after delivery of child by adolescent women. Provinces with a higher proportion of women with barriers to health care access critically influenced use of health facility for delivery. Individual characteristics such as parity and level of media access critically influenced used of modern contraceptives than community characteristics. Community characteristics acted as independent determinants, as well as moderators, on the association between individual characteristics and reproductive health care utilisation. There was a considerable contribution of community-level characteristics to reproductive health care utilisation. Reproductive health programme interventions aimed at increasing adolescent reproductive health care utilisation should take into account both individual and community characteristics. Policy makers should design programmes that encourage low fertility, attainment of at least secondary education by women, use of health facility for delivery, women’s participation in the labour force and a reduction of poverty levels which will ultimately improve provincial socio-economic development. Programmes should consider finding a solution to deal with some aspects that may hinder access to health care, such as accessibility to the health care facility, provision of transportation to health facilities, and cultural norms. More emphasis should also be made on the importance of delaying childbearing by creating an understanding of the health and socio-economic consequences of early childbearing. There is also a need for further research that examines other community characteristics’ influences, such as socio-political and cultural factors. This is important as provincial-level socio-economic development may involve social and political decision- making and cultural factors are likely to influence adolescent women’s decision to use reproductive health care services. This thesis builds on findings of previous studies by moving beyond the understanding of individual and household-level determinants of utilisation of reproductive health care by adolescent women. Community-level characteristics do play an important role in influencing reproductive health care service use by adolescent women. Compared to individual and household-level characteristics, the overall contribution of community-level characteristics effects on the utilisation of reproductive health care services by adolescent women differ by reproductive health care outcome. For example, the contribution of community-level effects outweighs the contribution of individual and household characteristics in influencing the use of the health facility for delivery and PNC within 48 hours after delivery. However, the contribution of individual and household-level characteristics effects on reproductive health care use by adolescent women outweigh the contribution of community-level characteristics in influencing the use of modern contraceptives. / MT2016

This study set out to examine the opportunities and constraints for Zimbabwean civil society participation in African Union policy initiatives. The work came up after a realisation that there are serious challenges that inhibit participation of Zimbabwean civil society organisations (CSOs) in the policy-making initiatives of the continental body. The problem arises from the structure of the African Union (AU) in that it is an inter-state organ and, as such, any engagement with the African citizens has to be done through the various governments of members‘ states. This means that for Zimbabwean CSOs‘ voices to be heard in the AU policy-making, they have to go through their Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Zimbabwean situation is a very unique and problematic one in that the government and CSOs are sworn enemies. The animosity arises from the allegations by the government that the CSOs are part of a well-orchestrated plot led by the United States of America and Britain to effect illegal regime change in Zimbabwe. It is the argument of the ZANU PF government that the West is sponsoring the opposition as a response to the land redistribution exercise. Given this background, it has been difficult for CSOs to make their representations to the government. This work therefore sought to determine alternative avenues for engagement by CSOs. The research was done through interviews of 20 CSOs involved in issues of democracy and good governance. It also utilised a lot of secondary information from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as well as the AU. The research came to the conclusion that CSOs need to improve their working relations with the government and also try to utilise other avenues for engagement like the Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC). The work further concluded that the ―cat and mouse‖ relationship between the government and civil society in Zimbabwe has created a situation where the latter has been demonised, if not totally criminalised to the extent of limiting its access into mainstream AU affairs. This, in brief, has presented a situation 5 where the feasibility of a democratic experience in Zimbabwe becomes increasingly remote and misty. Zimbabwe‗s contribution to African political and economic life has been disabled by the Zimbabwean government‘s next to single-handed approach to African and international affairs. The absence of the Zimbabwean civil society‗s voice in the African economic and political life reduces Zimbabwe‘s place in African affairs to a narrow and shallow location. The democratic doctrine of multiplicity of voices and diversity of opinions, which are important ingredients of democracy as it is globally perceived, are negated by the Zimbabwean government‘s enduring interest to collapse the civil society to dormant national shareholders whose role is theoretical at the expense of being real and meaningful. At a prima facie level, the Zimbabwean civil society is an isolated and hindered entity through legislation and economic and political conditions that the Zimbabwean government has caused. On the other hand, on a point of strategy and creative positive thought, this creates a window of opportunities and some interesting challenges to the actors and players in the Zimbabwean civil society to generate methods and approaches relating to the greater African economic and political reality without the co-operation, or the consent, of the Zimbabwean government. This presents a case study to the test of Africa and the globe that governance is not only a preserve of the governments, but is an all-inclusive process that must also involve non-state actors, lest it becomes a partisan and narrow meaningless affair. That, in the African context, can be summarised in a West African saying that ―no matter how big your hand is, it can not cover the sky‖. In this context, no matter how big the AU can be, it cannot adequately serve the interests of the whole of Africa without involving other key players like the civil society movement.

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This dissertation explores household risk and savings behavior in Zimbabwe, and agricultural technology adoption, and the impact of public investments on the economy and community health in Ethiopia. The first paper analyzes changes in per capita consumption and savings behavior in Zimbabwe before and after a range of financial and weather-related shocks using comparable national income, consumption and expenditure surveys of 1990/91 and 1995/96. The empirical results show that before droughts and macroeconomic adjustments Zimbabweans used savings to smooth consumption. In contrast, risk management strategies were severely limited after the shocks; consumption tracked income more closely in the latter period. The inability to effectively address the risks arising from droughts and economy-wide structural changes implies that any subsequent economic and social uncertainty will have serious welfare consequences. The second paper examines the interaction between public investments, community health, and productivity- and land-enhancing technology adoption decisions by farm households in Northern Ethiopia. It models technology adoption as a sequential process where the timing of choices can matter. The econometric test results indicate that the decision and intensity of technology adoption are highly correlated with the sequential nature of adoption. The most striking results concern the importance of disease - the amount of time spent sick and time spent caring for sick family members are inversely associated with both the decision and intensity of technology adoption. Finally the third paper looks at the welfare impacts of a public water resource development project with health side effects in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. It uses a model of a social planner to characterize the optimal implementation of such projects over time, showing how health and production are important considerations in this decision. The empirical analysis shows that the marginal net benefits of Tigray's current microdam investments are positive. The lost income households suffer from increased time away from productive activities (due to sickness) is compensated for by increased yields and market opportunities brought about through irrigated agriculture. However, it should be noted that this conclusion is based on efficiency and not equity. / Ph. D.