Thesis (Ph. D.)--Oregon State University, 2004. / Typescript (photocopy). Includes bibliographical references (leaves 148-158). Also available on the World Wide Web.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2004. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xiv, 74 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 69-71).

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Missouri, School of Mines and Metallurgy, 1925. / The entire thesis text is included in file. Typescript. Illustrated by author. Title from title screen of thesis/dissertation PDF file (viewed Oct. 9, 2009). Includes bibliographical references.

Includes bibliographical references (p. 104-110).

Thesis--Catholic University of America, 1937. / "Literature cited": p. 19.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available in electronic version.

In this work, the pneumatic spray pyrolysis was used to synthesize un-doped and carbon doped zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles. The zinc acetate, tetrabutylammonium bromide and ethanol were used as starting materials for the desired ZnO nanoparticles and the prepared samples were annealed at 400 oC in the furnace. The as synthesized un-doped and carbon doped ZnO NPs were evaluated using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscope (SEM), Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX), High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), Raman spectroscopy (RS) and Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis). XRD analysis of the synthesized NPs revealed peaks at 31.90°, 34.50°, 36.34°, 47.73°, 56.88°, 63.04°, 68.20°, and 77.33° belonging to the hexagonal Wurtzite ZnO crystal structure. The incorporation of C species into ZnO lattice was cross examined by monitoring the peak positions of the (100), (002) and (001) planes. These three main peaks of C-ZnO NPs show a peak shift to higher 2θ values which indicates substitutional carbon doping in ZnO NPs. SEM analysis has revealed that the as synthesized NPs have spherical shape and the morphology of the NPs change as the concentration of carbon increases. The EDX spectra of both un-doped and doped ZnO nanoparticles have revealed prominent peaks at 0.51 keV, 1.01 keV, 1.49 keV, 8.87 keV and 9.86 keV. Peaks at, X-ray energies of 0.51 keV and 1.01 keV respectively represent the emissions from the K-shell of oxygen and L-shell of zinc. The L-shell emission at 1.01 keV is considered as convolution of Zn 2p3/2 and Zn 2p1/2 photoelectron energies. The occurrence of these peaks in the EDX endorses the existence of Zn and O atoms in the PSP prepared samples. HRTEM analysis has revealed NPs size modal range from 6.65-14.21 nm for the PSP synthesized samples which is in mutual agreement with the XRD data calculated values. More over the selected area diffraction images displaying the fact that only the diffraction planes of (101), (002) and (100) are responsible for the diffraction pattern belonging to Wurtzite ZnO. RS analysis has revealed that the un-doped ZnO and doped ZnO samples have characteristic Raman vibration modes at 325 cm-1, and 434 cm-1 belonging to Wurtzite ZnO structure. Moreover, the prominent peak at 434 cm-1 which is the characteristic peak of E2(2) (high) mode of the Wurtzite ZnO and the E2(2) (high) has been red shifted by 4 cm-1, as compared to that found in the bulk ZnO. Additionally, the effect of carbon doping through Raman spectroscopy peak shifts of the E2(2) (high) mode, A1(LO) mode and multi-phonon has also been considered and discussed in detail. UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy has revealed a red shift of the absorption edge with increase in C doping. Finally, the effect of nano-crystallite size and gradual prominence of C into ZnO lattice due to increase in C doping concentration in the PSP prepared nanoparticles was meticulously elaborated through Raman Spectroscopy analysis.

In this work, zinc oxide nanosheets are synthesised through thermal decomposition of a layered basic zinc acetate precursor and implemented in sensors to investigate the reactions of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane. The mean size of nanoparticles within the nanosheets is shown to increase with annealing temperature, and sintering occurs after heating at temperatures of 700°C or higher. X-ray photoelectron and photoluminescence spectroscopy techniques demonstrate that the concentrations of both lattice oxygen species and oxygen-containing surface groups may be enhanced by increasing the annealing temperature. By using an Eley-Rideal-based physical model, the responses of the nanosheets to carbon monoxide are quantitatively related to the reaction parameters of the system. The response characteristics suggest that the carbon monoxide oxidation has activation energy 54 +/- 9 kJ mol-1 while oxygen ionosorption has an energy barrier of 72 +/- 9 kJ mol-1. The sensor recoveries are consistent with corresponding values of 42 +/- 7 kJ mol-1 and 63 +/- 10 kJ mol?¹ for carbon monoxide oxidation and oxygen ionosorption, respectively. In the absence of O- or CO2- surface ions, the energy difference between the Fermi level and the conduction band minimum at the surface is estimated as 590 +/- 90 meV at temperatures close to 400°C. The hydrogen responses of non-functionalised sensors are found to converge at 440°C, despite differing at lower temperatures. This observation is incompatible with the developed model, but it is shown that the phenomenon may be rationalised by considering that the hydrogen concentration close to the sensor surface is decreased due to the rapidity of hydrogen oxidation. Gold nanoparticles significantly enhance the hydrogen response, with gold-decorated nanosheets remaining sensitive to hydrogen below 150°C. Poor sensor recovery is attributed to the formation of long-lived hydroxyl groups formed during hydrogen spillover from the gold surface.

Zinc Oxide has emerged from an unspectacular past in the field of electronics to become one of the most widely researched materials for future devices. Here we investigate the growth and electrical properties of semiconducting ZnO nanowires for future application in the field of Nano-Devices and present a solution to control the behaviour of the electrical contacts. ZnO nanowires (NWs) from initial growth experimentation and optimisation have been thoroughly characterised both structurally and electrically. Structural characterisation revealed the high quality of nanowires from vapour phase and hydrothermal growth that translated to similar measurements of nanowire resistivity. We have confirmed the results of atomic resolution dark field imaging with simulations that no Au catalyst contaminates ZnO nanowires, which makes the material more desirable than Silicon or GaAs. Within the limits of the dark field imaging the interface of the catalyst particle and the nanowire is abrupt, clean and intimate, with no Au diffusion, interfacial layers or roughness. Electron microscopy reveals the Au has an epitaxial relationship with the ZnO and is solid during growth. Using fabrication and contamination free nanoprobe measurements (four-probe scanning tunnelling microscope) in vacuum a transition from rectifying to Ohmic is dependent on contact size and not the materials or structural variations. We have shown this with the application of the nanoprobe on free standing as-grown catalysed ZnO nanowires. Using the most common nanowire growth methods the structure has been thoroughly characterised to allow the interpretation of electrical measurements of resistivity and Au end contacts. A regime of size dependent contacts to ZnO nanowires provides the necessary knowledge and requirements to fabricate ZnO nanowire devices with controlled properties and function. This is a major hurdle for nanodevices overcome without complicated or difficult processing steps. A nanodevice can be fabricated from a substrate, with contacts, in one- step and with tailored interface properties by controlling the catalyst particle size.

In this work, the optical properties of ZnO doped with arsenic and nitrogen were studied. The ZnO samples were grown by Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD). The solubility of nitrogen in the ZnO films, as well as its activation upon annealing, was also investigated. Hydrogen is known as a major source for passivation of the acceptors in ZnO:N. Therefore, it is crucial to dissociate the complex(es) formed by nitrogen and hydrogen and diffuse out the hydrogen in order to prevent the reformation of such complexes. High temperatures (≥ 600 C) are required for these purposes. In order to effectively remove the hydrogen impurities from the sample, it is important to know the optical fingerprints of hydrogen and its thermal stability. Therefore, the effects of annealing and hydrogen plasma treatment on bulk ZnO (hydrothermally grown) were first studied. The use of bulk material for this purpose was motivated by the well-resolved photoluminescence (PL) lines observed for bulk ZnO, which allow the identification of the different lines related to hydrogen after plasma treatment. Annealing at 850 C was effective for the removal of most of the hydrogen related transitions in the near-band-edge emission. Also, additional transitions at ~3.364 eV and ~3.361 eV were observed after hydrogen plasma treatment, which were ascribed to hydrogen-Zn vacancy complexes. In this work, a comparative study of the annealing ambient and temperature on ZnO films grown on GaAs substrate, using diethyl zinc (DEZn) and tertiary butanol (TBOH), showed that arsenic diffuses in the ZnO films and gives a shallow level in the band gap, which is involved in an acceptor-bound exciton line at 3.35 eV. This shallow level is visible when annealing is performed in oxygen, but not when annealing is performed in nitrogen, and indeed only for annealing temperatures around 550 C. However, annealing in either ambient also causes zinc to diffuse from the ZnO films into the GaAs substrate, rendering the electrical properties deduced from Hall measurements ambiguous. For ZnO:N, NO was used as both oxygen and nitrogen sources. Monitoring the concentration of nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen in the ZnO films, the formation of different complexes from these impurities were deduced. Furthermore, an investigation of the effect of annealing on the concentrations of impurities showed that their out- diffusion was strongly dependent on the crystalline quality of the ZnO films. For porous ZnO films, obtained at low growth temperatures (≤310 C), the out-diffusion of impurities was efficient, whereas for films grown at higher temperatures, which have improved crystalline quality, the out-diffusion was practically nonexistent. The out-diffusion of unwanted impurities may activate the nitrogen dopant in the ZnO films, as was confirmed by the PL measurements on the different samples grown at different temperatures. PL transitions at ~3.24 eV and ~3.17 eV were related to substitutional NO. These transitions were more dominant in the spectra of samples grown at low temperatures. An additional transition at ~3.1 eV was assigned to a donor-acceptor pair transition involving VZn, instead of NO, as previously reported.