In this research, Fresnel zone plates were studied using an accurate, full-electromagnetic simulator based on the body-of-revolution finite-difference time-domain (BOR-FDTD) method. This tool was used to investigate zone plates for two different applications: zone plates used as antennas in communication systems and zone plates used as focusing elements in free-space, focused-beam measurement systems. Through detailed studies of zone plates for these applications, a number of general characteristics of the zone plate were given a more in-depth look than they have been given in the past. For the first application, parametric studies were performed for Soret, folded, and grooved-dielectric, phase-correcting zone plates for antenna applications. These studies were used to generate new design graphs, from which general observations are made about the effect of varying different parameters on the focusing ability of a zone plate. For the grooved-dielectric, phase-correcting zone plate, these studies show that a number of factors influence the focusing ability in ways that are unexpected, based on many of the simple techniques typically used to analyze zone plates. Each of these factors is evaluated individually. For the second application, a zone plate was designed to be used as a focusing element in a free-space, focused-beam measurement system. To determine the suitability of zone plates for this application, simulations and measurements of the electric field were used to compare this zone plate to a doubly-hyperbolic lens. A complete focused-beam system, using two zone plates as focusing elements, was used to measure the permittivity of different dielectric materials. These measurements are compared to results for a system that uses doubly-hyperbolic lenses and to published values. A technique for increasing the usable bandwidth of a zone plate in a focused-beam system was proposed and tested. Finally, as a topic for future research, the question is posed: Using the BOR-FDTD method, can a similar volume of material be shaped in a way that results in improved focusing performance compared to a traditional zone plate? Some insight into this open-ended question can be gained by examining preliminary results of the optimization of zone plates using of a genetic algorithm.

We fabricated the liquid crystal cell which had the property of the diffraction optical element. The concentric electrode had been fabricated on an indium-tin-oxide (ITO) substrate by etching technology. With the application of a proper voltage, it produces an inhomogeneous grating-like electric field in space to form phase Fresnel liquid crystal lens. Because of liquid crystals (LCs) are excellent electro-optic materials with electrical and optical anisotropies. Their optical properties can easily be modulated by the external electric field. Hence based on the electro-optic properties, the function of the as-constructed phase Fresnel liquid crystal lens has been studied in this paper. In this study, we discuss the diffraction efficiency of Fresnel LC lenses and collocated plano-convex to form dual focal length optical element.

This thesis discusses optoelectronic devices at mm-wave frequencies, focusing on optoelectronic beamforming and non-mechanical beam steering based on an optically excited Fresnel zone plate plasma. The optically controlled zone plate, termed the photo-injected Fresnel zone plate antenna (piFZPA) within this work, is introduced and a comprehensive theoretical framework developed. The design and optimisation of Fresnel zone plates are detailed, which determine the inherent performance of the piFZPA. A range of zone plates were designed, fabricated, and characterised at 94 GHz with up to 46 dBi gain, -26 dB sidelobe levels, and 67% aperture efficiency being measured for a quarter-wave design. The control of (sub) mm-wave beams by optical modulation of the complex permittivity of a semiconductor substrate is discussed. The significance of the free-carrier plasma dynamics, the effective lifetime, surface recombination, and the limits of the substrate which are imposed by the spatial resolution of the free-carrier plasma are highlighted, with the optimisation of these parameters discussed. The passivation quality of high-resistivity silicon wafers were characterised using a mm-wave photoconductance decay method, which yielded lifetime improvements from τ[subscript(eff)] = 60 us up to τ[subscript(eff)] ≈ 4,000 us, resulting in lowered recombination velocities (S = 15 cm/s). W-band characterisations of the passivated wafers illustrate the significance of surface recombination, with measured attenuations of up to 24 dB. Novel theoretical models are developed throughout this thesis, which yield insight into the requirements of optoelectronic devices, and are shown to agree well with measured data. The theoretical framework developed details the requirements, limitations, suitability, and design of piFZPAs at any frequency. A range of transmission-type piFZPAs are demonstrated and characterised at 94 GHz, both on-axis and off-axis, based on a novel architecture, with up to 8% aperture efficiency. Finally, the hybridisation of the piFZPA technique and well established visible display technologies, which has been developed throughout this thesis, enable low-cost, simple, and highly flexible optoelectronic devices, highlighting this method as an attractive solution to adaptive beamforming and non-mechanical steering at mm-wave and submm-wave frequencies.

This thesis presents a unique design for an infrared spectrometer based on a MEMS Binary Fresnel Zone Plate for the purpose of assessing the health of oil-impregnated high voltage (HV) equipment. It does so by measuring dissolved gases within it. These gases include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ethane, ethylene, and acetylene. These gases are currently measured using numerous technologies such as gas combustion, gas chromatography, photoacoustic spectroscopy, and FTIR spectroscopy. Each of these technologies have their advantages and disadvantages. The design presented in this thesis consists of an analysis of how the various Binary Zone Plate parameters affect its spectral resolution and transmission efficiency. Simulations show that increasing the number of zones and the focal length, as well as decreasing the aperture diameter, increases the spectral resolution of the spectrometer. Simulations also show that transmission efficiency is proportional to the number of zones and the aperture diameter. This thesis presents a theoretical argument for how one zone plate lens can be used to measure all dissolved gases present in HV equipment. Lenses for the visible and infrared ranges were fabricated in the University of Manitoba NSFL Cleanroom. The lenses were then tested in an optical setup. The results show that the visible light experiments were successful in achieving appropriate spectral discrimination by changing the distance between the aperture and the lens. The results from the infrared experiment show that a detector was able to discriminate between full and no incident radiation. / May 2017

This thesis describes the development of soft x-rayreflective optics, instrumentation and applications for compactsoft x-ray microscopy. The microscope is based on a table-topliquid-jet-target laser-plasma source in combination with aspherical normal-incidence multilayer condenser mirror andnanofabricated diffractive optics for imaging. High-resolutionimaging is performed at the wavelength 3.374 nm in thewater-window (2.3 - 4.4 nm), where natural contrast betweencarbon and oxygen allows imaging of unstained biologicalmaterial in their natural aqueous environment. The design and implementation of a compact soft x-rayreflectometer based on a laser-plasma source is described. Thereflectometer allows rapid and accurate characterization ofnormal-incidence multilayer coatings used at water-windowwavelengths. This instrument, which measures absolutereflectivity and multilayer period, is now used in thefabrication process, aiming to improve the soft x-raynormal-incidence multilayer condenser system of the compactsoft x-ray microscope. Latest results from the developmentprocess are presented. A new design of the compact soft x-ray microscope, withimprovements in mechanical and thermal stability, providesuser-friendly and daily operation. This includes also a newnozzle design for the liquid-jet-target laser-plasma source,which enables higher source stability and operation withcryogenic liquids. In addition, a new experimental arrangementunder construction is briefly described. It will utilize acondenser zone plate and operate at the wavelength 2.478nm. Finally, performance test of the compact soft x-raymicroscope is presented and discussed. In addition, a projectto explore the use of soft x-ray microscopy for imaging sensorycells is described. The high-resolution imaging of these cellswas performed at the synchrotron-based soft x-ray microscope atLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL).

This thesis describes the development of a sub-60-nm full-period resolution compact soft x-ray microscope operating in the water-window region (2.3-4.4 nm). Soft x-ray water-window microscopy is a powerful technique for high-resolution imaging of organic materials exploiting the natural contrast mechanism between carbon and oxygen, cf. Sect. 4.1. The thesis discusses the components of, as well as the integration of the microscope, including liquid-jet laser-plasma x-ray sources, optics, simulations, and image-processing tools. Liquid-jet-target laser-plasma sources for generation of soft x-rays and extreme-ultraviolet radiation are compact sources with high brightness. The work focused on improved target stability, decreased debris, and accurate source characterization. For x ray microscopy applications a liquid-jet target delivery system allowing cryogenic liquids was developed. Source characterization was performed for two different liquid-jet targets: Methanol and liquid nitrogen. For extreme-ultraviolet lithography applications, the potential use of a liquid-tin-jet laser-plasma source was explored including conversion efficiency and debris measurements. High quality optics are essential in the development of compact x-ray microscopes. For soft x-ray wavelengths, zone plates and multilayer mirrors are used to focus or redirect radiation. This thesis describes the development and characterization of a condenser zone plate suitable for use in a compact soft x-ray microscope operating at λ = 2.478 nm. It also investigates the possibility to perform differential interference contrast microscopy in the water window using a single diffractive optical element. An arrangement for rapid and accurate determination of absolute and local diffraction efficiency of soft x-ray zone plates using a compact laser-plasma source has been developed. The instrument is used to characterize the zone plates fabricated at the Biomedical & X-Ray Physics division at KTH. Through a collaboration with the Fraunhofer-Institut in Jena, Germany, a large diameter spherical Cr/Sc multilayer mirror, suitable as condenser in the compact x-ray microscope, was developed and characterized. The mirror is designed for λ = 3.374 nm and shows a high, and uniform reflectivity of 3%. This increases the photon flux by an order of magnitude compared to the W/B4C mirrors previously used. The thesis describes the development of a compact soft x-ray microscope with sub-60-nm full-period resolution. It can operate at two different wavelengths in the water window using the soft x-ray laser-plasma sources combined with the condenser optics described above. Imaging is performed by zone plate objectives. The microscope is capable of imaging hydrated biological samples with thicknesses up to ~10 μm. Improvements made to the mechanical design has turned it into a user friendly instrument allowing daily operation. A numerical method was developed to study the effects of partially coherent illumination on 2D imaging. To stimulate experiments on functional imaging in x-ray microscopy an image-analysis algorithm for identifying colloidal-gold particles was developed. Size selective identification and localization of single gold particles down to a diameter of 50 nm was demonstrated. / QC 20100819

<p>This thesis describes the development of soft x-rayreflective optics, instrumentation and applications for compactsoft x-ray microscopy. The microscope is based on a table-topliquid-jet-target laser-plasma source in combination with aspherical normal-incidence multilayer condenser mirror andnanofabricated diffractive optics for imaging. High-resolutionimaging is performed at the wavelength 3.374 nm in thewater-window (2.3 - 4.4 nm), where natural contrast betweencarbon and oxygen allows imaging of unstained biologicalmaterial in their natural aqueous environment.</p><p>The design and implementation of a compact soft x-rayreflectometer based on a laser-plasma source is described. Thereflectometer allows rapid and accurate characterization ofnormal-incidence multilayer coatings used at water-windowwavelengths. This instrument, which measures absolutereflectivity and multilayer period, is now used in thefabrication process, aiming to improve the soft x-raynormal-incidence multilayer condenser system of the compactsoft x-ray microscope. Latest results from the developmentprocess are presented.</p><p>A new design of the compact soft x-ray microscope, withimprovements in mechanical and thermal stability, providesuser-friendly and daily operation. This includes also a newnozzle design for the liquid-jet-target laser-plasma source,which enables higher source stability and operation withcryogenic liquids. In addition, a new experimental arrangementunder construction is briefly described. It will utilize acondenser zone plate and operate at the wavelength 2.478nm.</p><p>Finally, performance test of the compact soft x-raymicroscope is presented and discussed. In addition, a projectto explore the use of soft x-ray microscopy for imaging sensorycells is described. The high-resolution imaging of these cellswas performed at the synchrotron-based soft x-ray microscope atLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL).</p>

This thesis summarizes the present status of the nanofabrication of diffractive optics, i.e. zone plates, and test objects for soft x-ray microscopy at KTH. The emphasis is on new and improved fabrication processes for nickel and germanium zone plates. A new concept in which nickel and germanium are combined in a zone plate is also presented. The main techniques used in the fabrication are electron beam lithography for the patterning, followed by plasma etching and electroplating for the structuring of the optical materials. The process for fabricating nickel zone plates has been significantly improved. The reproducibility of the electroplating step has been increased by the implementation of an in-situ rate measurement and an end-point detection method. We have also shown that pulse plating can be used to obtain zone plates with a uniform height profile. New plating mold materials have been introduced and electron-beam curing of the molds has been investigated and implemented to increase their mechanical stability so that pattern collapse in the electroplating step can be avoided. The introduction of cold development has improved the achievable resolution of the process. This has enabled the fabrication of zone plates with outermost zone widths down to 16 nm. The nickel process has also recently been adapted to fabrication of gold structures intended for test objects and hard x-ray zone plates. For the fabrication of germanium zone plates we developed a highly anisotropic plasma-etch process using Cl2 feed and sidewall passivation. Germanium zone plates have been fabricated with zone widths down to 30 nm. The diffraction efficiency is comparable to that of nickel zone plates, but the process does not involve electroplating and thus has for potential for highyield fabrication. The combination of nickel and germanium is a new fabrication concept that provides a means to achieve high diffraction efficiency even for thin nickel. The idea is to fabricate a nickel zone plate on a germanium film. The nickel zone plate itself is then used as etch mask for a highly selective CHF3- plasma etch into the germanium layer. Proof of principle experiments showed an efficiency increase of about a factor of two for nickel zone plates with a 50- nm nickel thickness. / QC 20100728

In dieser Arbeit werden elektrodynamische Untersuchungen von diffraktiven Röntgenoptiken mit hohen Aspektverhältnissen - sog. Volumenzonenplatten - für hochauflösende Röntgenmikroskopie im Photonenenergiebereich von 0.1-10 keV behandelt. Des Weiteren werden Verfahren zur Realisierung solcher Optiken dargestellt. Das Auflösungsvermögen von Röntgenmikroskopen ist weitgehend durch die numerische Apertur der verwendeten Objektive bestimmt. Die Apertur hängt von der äußeren Zonenbreite der Zonenplatte und der gewählten Beugungsordnung ab. Eine Auflösungssteigerung kann nur durch Verringerung der äußeren Zonenbreiten oder Abbildung in hohen Ordnungen erzielt werden. Neben hoher Ortsauflösung ist ein hinreichender Beugungswirkungsgrad die Grundlage für röntgenmikroskopische Abbildungen. Elektrodynamische Rechnungen zeigen, dass geneigte Zonenstrukturen mit hohen Aspektverhältnissen zum signifikanten Anstieg der Effizienz in hohen Beugungsordnungen führen. Diese Volumenbeugungseffekte an Zonenplatten werden mit Hilfe der rigorosen Theorie gekoppelter Wellen untersucht. Praktisch können dreidimensionale, geneigte Nanostrukturen aufgrund der extremen nanotechnologischen Anforderungen nur durch Approximierung des Neigungswinkels realisiert werden. Zur Herstellung von Zonenplatten mit hohen Aspektverhältnissen und geneigten Zonen wird ein sog. Stack-Prozess eingeführt, der auf der Überlagerung von einzelnen Zonenplattenlagen basiert. Um den Neigungswinkel der Zonen anzunähern, werden die Zonenradien dabei mit jeder Lage verringert. Die erfolgreiche Realisierung der erforderlichen Nanotechnologien führt erstmalig zur Herstellung von Multi-Lagen-Zonenplatten mit minimalen Zonenbreiten bis zu 25 nm. Multi-Lagen- und Volumenzonenplatten bieten zukünftig das Potential für gesteigerte Auflösungsvermögen im sub-10 nm Bereich für die Mikroskopie im weichen Röntgenbereich und für die Fokussierung von harter Röntgenstrahlung auf bis zu 20 nm bei gleichzeitig hohen Beugungseffizienzen. / In this thesis, electrodynamical calculations of diffractive x-ray optics with high aspect ratios – so-called volume zone plates – for high resolution x-ray microscopy in the photon energy range from 0.1 - 10 keV are presented. In addition, methods for the realization of this optics are described. The resolution of an x-ray microscope is limited by the numerical aperture of the objective. Thereby the aperture depends on the outermost zone width of the zone plate and the diffraction order which is used for imaging. Hence, the resolution can only be increased by decreasing the minimum zone width or imaging in high orders of diffraction. Besides the resolving power, the diffraction efficiency needs to be sufficiently high for zone plate based x-ray microscopy. Electrodynamical calculations show that tilted zone structures with high aspect ratios significantly increase the diffraction efficiency in selected high orders. These volume diffraction effects on zone plates were investigated by the rigorous coupled wave theory. Due to very high nanotechnological requirements, such three-dimensional, tilted nanostructures can only be realized by multiple-step zone plates. For the fabrication of zone plates with high aspect ratios and tilted zones the so-called stack process is introduced in this thesis, which is based on a superposition of single zone plate layers. For an approximation of the tilt angle of the structures the zone radii are thereby decreased with each layer. For the first time multilayer zone plates with minimum zone widths down to 25 nm were fabricated by the successful realization of the stack process in this thesis. In the future, multilayer and volume zone plates have the potential for an increased spatial resolution in the sub-10 nm range for soft x-ray microscopy and for focusing hard x-rays down to 20 nm with high diffraction efficiencies.

<p>The fabrication of zone plate lenses that are used for focusing X-rays relies on nanofabrication techniques such as e-beam lithography, reactive ion etching, and electroplating. The circular grating-like zone plate pattern can have a smallest half-period, a so-called zone width, of down to 20 nm while it also needs to have a height that is 5 to 10 times the zone width to have good diffraction efficiency. This high aspect ratio structuring is a very challenging field of nanofabrication.</p><p>This diploma project has focused on improving the process step of fabricating the electroplating mold by cryo-cooling the polymer during the reactive ion etching with O₂. The low temperature causes passivation of the sidewalls of the mold during etching which results in a more ideal rectangular profile of the high aspect ratio plating mold.</p><p>By etching at -100 °C, structures with highly vertical sidewalls and no undercut were realized. The experiments showed that there is a tradeoff between the anisotropy of the zone profile and the formation rate of polymer residue, so-called RIE grass. Through a proper choice of process parameters the grass could be completely removed without introducing any undercut.</p> / QC 20100414