The 12th and 13th centuries were period of heightened anxiety about the male body, its sexuality, and the definition of "manhood." Based on widening knowledge of human anatomy and masculinity, philosophers posed the question whether a eunuch could still be considered "male" if he lacked the sexual organs that identified him as a man. This debate then spread within the confines of the religious thought, as clerics discussed how the Church should treat eunuchs (legally and spiritually). The following thesis investigates medieval views on "manhood" and focuses on the status of eunuchs within the ecclesiastical system. Peter Abelard (1079- 1142), a philosopher who was made eunuch, will be used as a window to the treatment of eunuchs by the Church. The thesis argues that although the Church did not approve of castration, there were no specific canon laws which ostracized or damned eunuchs. Furthermore, this thesis shows that because Abelard had successfully consummated his marriage, there was no mandate for Abelard to renounce his relationship with his wife Heloise after being castrated. Finally, this thesis charts Abelard's opinions on his own castration, beginning with his interpretation of the Mosaic Law as evidence for God's abhorrence of eunuchs and ending with his belief that his castration was a divinely granted remedy that allowed him to focus on excelling as a philosopher and theologian.

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The topic of this dissertation is a Medieval collection of 116 love letters (and fragments thereof), composed in all likelihood in the 12th century and commonly known today as "Epistulae duorum amantium". The only extant copy, penned by the Librarian of Clairvaux Abbey, comes from the latter half of the 15th century. The manuscript was discovered no sooner than in the 1970s and has been a subject of many questions ever since: It is not clear who the author of the original is or if the scribe copied a collection of genuine intimate correspondence or a work of rhetorical fiction (of the "ars dictaminis" genre). Nevertheless, certain aspects of the narrative and the relationship between the two lovers as depicted in the texts make some contemporary Medieval scholars believe that the collection might be an authentic record of the correspondence between the influential French theologian Abélard and his student Heloïse, written during the period of their mutual intensive romantic attachment. The aim of this dissertation is to present a complete Czech translation of the collection, accompanied by commentary and, using relevant works of secondary literature, to assess the current stage of research regarding the authenticity of the correspondence and its authorship.

La recherche comporte deux aspects principaux. Premièrement, la thèse analyse une solution réaliste au problème des universaux datant du début du XIIe siècle et que l’on nomme ici ‘théorie de l’indiuiduum’ (= ThI; aussi connue sous les noms de ‘théorie de l’indifférence’, ‘théorie du status’, ‘deuxième théorie de la collectio’ etc.). Selon ThI, l’universel est l’individu lui-même dans l’un de ses status. ThI utilise en outre des éléments abélardiens pour une solution tout à fait opposée à celle d’Abélard. ThI est ici étudiée dans le cadre d’une analyse des solutions réalistes au problème des universaux présentées par cinq sources : la Logica ‘Ingredientibus’ d’Abélard, la Logica ‘Nostrorum’, le ‘De generibus et speciebus’ (qu’on cite à partir d’une transcription directe du ms. Orléans, BM, 266, pp. 154b-163a), le traité ‘Quoniam de generali’ et le commentaire inédit ‘P17’ à l’Isagoge du ms. Paris, BnF, lat. 3237, ff. 123ra–124va et 125ra–130rb. Cette recherche prend en compte non seulement ThI, mais aussi les autres théories réalistes (la théorie de l’essence matérielle, une variante de celle-ci, la théorie de la collectio et une troisième solution réaliste de la ‘Nostrorum’) qui sont décrites avec ThI, ainsi que les 78 arguments contre le réalisme cités par les textes, ici catalogués et analysés en détail. Deuxièmement, la thèse examine la question de l’attribution de ThI à Gauthier de Mortagne, qui fut maître à Reims et à Laon dans les premières décennies du siècle et dont la vie et les œuvres font ici l’objet d’une présentation. L’attribution se fonde sur le témoignage du Metalogicon (II, 17) de Jean de Salisbury qu’il convient de comparer aux données du Policraticus. / This research project has two main objectives. First, its aim is to study a realist solution to the problem of universals from the early 12th century. This is called the indiuiduum-theory (=IndT; previous denominations include: indifference-theory, status-theory, second collectio-theory, etc.). IndT claims the universal to be a thing (res); in fact, it claims the universal to be the individual thing itself in one of its states (status). It makes use of some key notions of Abelard’s philosophy to produce a remarkably non-Abelardian sort of solution. The thesis subjects IndT to scrutiny by taking into consideration five main sources (which either describe IndT in order to criticise it, or in order to support it): Abelard’s Logica ‘Ingredientibus’, Logica ‘Nostrorum’, ‘De generibus et speciebus’ (transcribed directly from ms. Orléans, BM, 266, pp. 154b-163a), ‘Quoniam de generali’ and the Isagoge Commentary ‘P17’ (from ms. Paris, BnF, lat. 3237, ff. 123ra–124va, 125ra–130rb). Not only IndT, but the whole description of realism found in these texts is investigated. This includes an analysis of other realist views (different versions of material essence realism; the collectio-theory; a third realist solution in the Logica ‘Nostrorum’) together with a catalogue and detailed analysis of the 78 arguments presented against such realist views to be found in the five sources. A second aim of this work is to investigate whether IndT can be attributed to Walter of Mortagne, who was a master in Reims and Laon in the first decades of the 12th century. The attribution, which is based on John of Salisbury’s testimony in Metalogicon II, 17, is to be compared with John’s Policraticus.

O objetivo deste trabalho é identificar o sistema de ordenação do mundo e o lugar social do magister nas correspondências trocadas entre o Mestre Pedro Abelardo (1079-1142) e sua esposa Heloísa (1090-1164), abadessa do Paracleto. O corpus documental utilizado nesta pesquisa consiste na Historia calamitatum, as sete epístolas trocadas entre Abelardo e Heloísa e os problemata, uma carta escrita por Heloísa e respondida por Abelardo sobre diversas questões teológicas. Entendem-se como sistemas de ordenação do mundo os modelos ideológicos de ordenação social. A análise deste conjunto documental permite compreender como se produziram os discursos que visavam autorizar a forma que a sociedade toma ou deveria tomar para melhor funcionar. Estes modelos ideológicos são projetos políticos e, por definirem graus de hierarquia, também justificam qual grupo social deveria manter preponderância na sociedade. Pesquisar a ordenação divina ou os modelos de ordenação divina significa estudar, nas exposições de clérigos e letrados, os projetos políticos daqueles que constroem ou seguem estes discursos, suas mudanças através do tempo em razão das necessidades impostas pelo período e pela sociedade analisada. Significa, também, o esforço de entender qual o papel de cada categoria hierárquica dentro destes sistemas e as funções, modelos de comportamento e tentativas de enquadramento das pessoas que a eles são sujeitados. / The objective of this work is to identify the system of ordering of the world and the social magister in letters exchanged between the Master Peter Abelard (1079-1142) and his wife Heloise (1090-1164), abbess of the Paracleto. The documentary corpus used in this study consists of the Historia calamitatum the seven epistles exchanged between Abelard and Heloise and problemata, a letter written by Heloise and Abelard answered by on various theological issues. Understood as ordering systems of the world the ideological models of social ordering. The analysis of this set of documents provides insight into how it produced the discourses trying to authorize the form that society takes or should take to best work. These models are ideological and political projects, for defining degrees of hierarchy, which also justifies social group should keep the preponderance in society. Search the divine ordination or models of divine ordination means studying, exhibitions of clerics and scholars, the political projects that build or follow these speeches, their changes over time because of the requirements imposed by society and the period analyzed. It also means the effort to understand the role of each hierarchical category within these systems and functions, role models and attempted framing of people who are subjected to them.

Lo scopo di questa ricerca è l’analisi del I libro delle Sententiae di Pietro Lombardo nel quadro della teologia trinitaria del XII secolo. Un riscoperto interesse, grazie agli studi di Colish e Rosemann, invita ad ipotizzarne una lettura interpretativa che, riconoscendo l’ingente sforzo dell’autore nella raccolta e sistemazione delle fonti latine e greche, intende rintracciare una certa sistematicità ed alcune novità nel genere e nelle questioni affrontate. Un approccio storico-filologico applica l’analisi testuale ai nodi tematici più importanti della dottrina lombardiana a partire da una preliminare riflessione sul metodo e sul linguaggio adottati, da cui si evince l’intento didattico-apologetico dell’autore. Nella dialettica auctoritas/inquisitio si vuole infatti ridurre il rischio di incorrere nell’errore e da qui in posizioni eretiche. Il Lombardo espone una teologia positiva che mantiene costante il riferimento all’essenza del Dio trinitario nella sua unità e trascendenza; l’analisi di proprietates e nomi divini, la questione della generazione divina, la pneumatologia ed il tema De potentia Dei vanno collocati all’interno del dibattito del tempo. In tale contesto, il confronto con la teologia di Pietro Abelardo risulta funzionale a comprendere la distanza e la novità che le Sententiae rappresentano, pur nella indubbia ricezione di aspetti metodologici ed in parte concettuali dal maestro palatino. / According to some recent studies, such as Colish’s and Rosemann’s, further investigation is likely to be needed in order to approach Peter Lombard’s Sentences. Hence this study aims at analysing the Sentences I within the Trinitarian theology of the XII century: the author’s systematic effort in collecting and ordering the main theological sources suggests new perspectives in the genre and in the themes. An historical-philological approach applies the textual analysis to the Lombardian work, after examining his theological method and language. In the dialectic between authority and investigation, the Master’s purpose turns out to be twofold: educational and apologetic, teaching scholars to avoid ‘errors’ and, consequently, heretical positions. So, within a ‘positive theology’, the main feature of Lombard’s collection is the transcendence and the supreme unity of God. On this base themes like the divine properties, the Son’s generation, the doctrine of the Holy Spirit and the divine omnipotence are investigated in the context of the medieval theological debates. For instance, the comparison between Peter Lombard and Peter Abelard on the Trinitarian topics highlights the Lombardian original account, in spite of his certain reception of some of the Abelardian methodological, and partly conceptual, issues.

O objetivo deste trabalho é identificar o sistema de ordenação do mundo e o lugar social do magister nas correspondências trocadas entre o Mestre Pedro Abelardo (1079-1142) e sua esposa Heloísa (1090-1164), abadessa do Paracleto. O corpus documental utilizado nesta pesquisa consiste na Historia calamitatum, as sete epístolas trocadas entre Abelardo e Heloísa e os problemata, uma carta escrita por Heloísa e respondida por Abelardo sobre diversas questões teológicas. Entendem-se como sistemas de ordenação do mundo os modelos ideológicos de ordenação social. A análise deste conjunto documental permite compreender como se produziram os discursos que visavam autorizar a forma que a sociedade toma ou deveria tomar para melhor funcionar. Estes modelos ideológicos são projetos políticos e, por definirem graus de hierarquia, também justificam qual grupo social deveria manter preponderância na sociedade. Pesquisar a ordenação divina ou os modelos de ordenação divina significa estudar, nas exposições de clérigos e letrados, os projetos políticos daqueles que constroem ou seguem estes discursos, suas mudanças através do tempo em razão das necessidades impostas pelo período e pela sociedade analisada. Significa, também, o esforço de entender qual o papel de cada categoria hierárquica dentro destes sistemas e as funções, modelos de comportamento e tentativas de enquadramento das pessoas que a eles são sujeitados. / The objective of this work is to identify the system of ordering of the world and the social magister in letters exchanged between the Master Peter Abelard (1079-1142) and his wife Heloise (1090-1164), abbess of the Paracleto. The documentary corpus used in this study consists of the Historia calamitatum the seven epistles exchanged between Abelard and Heloise and problemata, a letter written by Heloise and Abelard answered by on various theological issues. Understood as ordering systems of the world the ideological models of social ordering. The analysis of this set of documents provides insight into how it produced the discourses trying to authorize the form that society takes or should take to best work. These models are ideological and political projects, for defining degrees of hierarchy, which also justifies social group should keep the preponderance in society. Search the divine ordination or models of divine ordination means studying, exhibitions of clerics and scholars, the political projects that build or follow these speeches, their changes over time because of the requirements imposed by society and the period analyzed. It also means the effort to understand the role of each hierarchical category within these systems and functions, role models and attempted framing of people who are subjected to them.

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The present thesis investigates the music and career of Jeffrey Lewis (born 1942). The thesis is broadly divided into three sections. First is an account of the composer’s life, told mainly through an overview of his works, but also through a sketch of his early years in South Wales, his studies in Cardiff, Darmstadt, Kraków and Paris, his academic career in Leeds and Bangor, and his subsequent early retirement from academia. There follows a more detailed study of six works from the period 1978 – 1985, during which certain features of Lewis’s musical language came to the fore, perhaps most notably a very individual and instantly recognisable use of modal language. After an Epilogue, the thesis concludes with an Appendix in the form of a Catalogue in which all Lewis’s known compositions are listed, together with details of performances, broadcasts and recordings. Lewis’s music often plays with our temporal expectations; the close interrelationship between texture, structure, harmony and melody, and its effect upon our perception of the passage of time, are explored in the main analyses. These are conducted partly by means of comparison with other works by Lewis or his contemporaries. Memoria is examined in relation to a similarly tranquil score, Naaotwá Lalá, by Giles Swayne. The following chapter discusses the extra-musical inspiration for Epitaph for Abelard and Heloise, whose relationship to Tableau is then explored in the next. The difficulties of creating a large-scale structure that unifies the work’s various harmonic elements are also investigated. The analysis of Carmen Paschale considers it in relation to Lewis’s other choral music, whilst the final analytical chapter compares and contrasts two three-movement works, the Piano Trio and the Fantasy for solo piano. Lewis’s melodic writing in the Piano Trio is discussed in relation to that of James MacMillan, and the origins of the first movement of Fantasy in Oliver Knussen’s Sonya’s Lullaby are explored. In the Epilogue, the possible reasons for Lewis’s current neglect are explored, various influences on Lewis’s musical thinking are laid out, and his achievements are assessed.