A teoria da acustoelasticidade relaciona a variação de velocidade de propagação de ondas mecânicas à variação de tensão em um meio sólido. Em materiais frágeis como concreto, a danificação altera a velocidade de propagação paralelamente ao efeito acustoelástico. O objetivo deste trabalho é identificar e quantificar como a danificação e o efeito acustoelástico agem sobre a Velocidade de Pulso Ultrassônico (VPU) em corpos de prova de concreto submetidos a compressão uniaxial. Para tanto, foram realizadas três fases de ensaio. A primeira fase objetivou gerar dados para a análise da aplicação da interferometria de cauda de onda (Coda Wave Interferometry – CWI). Duas variações deste método foram estudadas e comparadas, com o propósito de determinar-se qual gera melhores resultados e quais parâmetros devem ser adotados para as análises. Para tal, um código computacional foi desenvolvido utilizando a linguagem Python 3.6.0. Foi constatado que a técnica do alongamento apresenta resultados melhores que a técnica tradicional da interferometria de cauda de onda. A segunda etapa foi dedicada ao estudo da variação de velocidade de propagação devido à recuperação de dano do corpo de prova. A terceira fase abordou a influência da geometria da amostra e da composição do concreto sobre a resposta do material à acustoelasticidade. Além disso, definiu-se um Índice de Dano (D) baseado na redução do módulo de elasticidade devido ao carregamento, a fim de isolar a variação de velocidade causada pelo efeito acustoelástico. Quanto ao estudo da recuperação de dano ao longo do tempo, a variação relativa de velocidade nas primeiras 24 horas após a retirada do carregamento se mostrou muito pequena em relação às variações geradas pelas condições de temperatura e umidade. Concluiu-se também que as amostras cilíndricas apresentaram respostas mais uniformes ao efeito acustoelástico que as amostras prismáticas. Por fim, o Índice de Dano se mostrou eficaz para isolar os efeitos da danificação e da acustoelasticidade sobre a VPU. / The acoustoelasticity theory relates the variation in propagation velocity of mechanical waves to the stress variation in a solid medium. In brittle materials such as concrete, damage affects the propagation velocity parallel to the acoustoelastic effect. This research aims to identify and quantify how damage and acoustoelastic effect act on Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) in concrete samples subjected to uniaxial compression. In order to do so, three phases of testing were performed. The first one focused on generating data to analyze the application of the Coda Wave Interferometry (CWI). Two variations of this method were studied and compared, to the purpose of determining which variation shows better results and which parameters should be adopted in the analysis. To enable the analysis, a computational code using Python 3.6.0 language was developed. It was verified that the stretching technique shows better results than the traditional coda wave interferometry technique. The second phase was dedicated to study the variation in propagation velocity due to damage recovery in the sample. The third phase addressed the influence of the sample geometry and the concrete composition over the response from the material to the acoustoelasticity. Furthermore, a Damage Index (D) was defined based on the elastic modulus reduction due to loading, in order to isolate the variation of velocity due solely to the acoustoelastic effect. Regarding the study of damage recovery over time, the relative velocity variation in the first 24 hours following the withdrawal of the loading showed to be too little when compared to the variations caused by temperature and humidity conditions. It was also concluded that the cylindrical samples showed more uniform responses to the acoustoelastic effect than the prismatic samples. Finally, the Damage Index proved itself to be a reliable tool to isolate the effects of damage and acoustoelasticity over the UPV.

The effect of stress on Lamb wave propagation is relevant to both nondestructive evaluation and structural health monitoring because of changes in received signals due to both the associated strain and the acoustoelastic effect. A homogeneous plate that is initially isotropic becomes anisotropic under biaxial stress, and dispersion of propagating waves becomes directionally dependent. The problem is similar to Lamb wave propagation in an anisotropic plate, except the fourth order tensor in the resulting wave equation does not have the same symmetry as that for the unstressed anisotropic plate, and the constitutive equation relating incremental stress to incremental strain is more complicated. Here we review the theory of acoustoelastic and develop theory for acoustoelastic Lamb wave propagation and show how dispersion curves shift anisotropically for an aluminum plate under biaxial tension. We also develop an approximate method using the effective elastic constants (EECs) and show that existing commercial tools to generate dispersion curves can be used under restricted conditions to describe wave propagation in biaxially stressed plates. Predictions of changes in phase velocity as a function of propagation direction using theory and the EEC method are compared to experimental results for a single wave mode.

A teoria da acustoelasticidade relaciona a variação de velocidade de propagação de ondas mecânicas à variação de tensão em um meio sólido. Em materiais frágeis como concreto, a danificação altera a velocidade de propagação paralelamente ao efeito acustoelástico. O objetivo deste trabalho é identificar e quantificar como a danificação e o efeito acustoelástico agem sobre a Velocidade de Pulso Ultrassônico (VPU) em corpos de prova de concreto submetidos a compressão uniaxial. Para tanto, foram realizadas três fases de ensaio. A primeira fase objetivou gerar dados para a análise da aplicação da interferometria de cauda de onda (Coda Wave Interferometry – CWI). Duas variações deste método foram estudadas e comparadas, com o propósito de determinar-se qual gera melhores resultados e quais parâmetros devem ser adotados para as análises. Para tal, um código computacional foi desenvolvido utilizando a linguagem Python 3.6.0. Foi constatado que a técnica do alongamento apresenta resultados melhores que a técnica tradicional da interferometria de cauda de onda. A segunda etapa foi dedicada ao estudo da variação de velocidade de propagação devido à recuperação de dano do corpo de prova. A terceira fase abordou a influência da geometria da amostra e da composição do concreto sobre a resposta do material à acustoelasticidade. Além disso, definiu-se um Índice de Dano (D) baseado na redução do módulo de elasticidade devido ao carregamento, a fim de isolar a variação de velocidade causada pelo efeito acustoelástico. Quanto ao estudo da recuperação de dano ao longo do tempo, a variação relativa de velocidade nas primeiras 24 horas após a retirada do carregamento se mostrou muito pequena em relação às variações geradas pelas condições de temperatura e umidade. Concluiu-se também que as amostras cilíndricas apresentaram respostas mais uniformes ao efeito acustoelástico que as amostras prismáticas. Por fim, o Índice de Dano se mostrou eficaz para isolar os efeitos da danificação e da acustoelasticidade sobre a VPU. / The acoustoelasticity theory relates the variation in propagation velocity of mechanical waves to the stress variation in a solid medium. In brittle materials such as concrete, damage affects the propagation velocity parallel to the acoustoelastic effect. This research aims to identify and quantify how damage and acoustoelastic effect act on Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) in concrete samples subjected to uniaxial compression. In order to do so, three phases of testing were performed. The first one focused on generating data to analyze the application of the Coda Wave Interferometry (CWI). Two variations of this method were studied and compared, to the purpose of determining which variation shows better results and which parameters should be adopted in the analysis. To enable the analysis, a computational code using Python 3.6.0 language was developed. It was verified that the stretching technique shows better results than the traditional coda wave interferometry technique. The second phase was dedicated to study the variation in propagation velocity due to damage recovery in the sample. The third phase addressed the influence of the sample geometry and the concrete composition over the response from the material to the acoustoelasticity. Furthermore, a Damage Index (D) was defined based on the elastic modulus reduction due to loading, in order to isolate the variation of velocity due solely to the acoustoelastic effect. Regarding the study of damage recovery over time, the relative velocity variation in the first 24 hours following the withdrawal of the loading showed to be too little when compared to the variations caused by temperature and humidity conditions. It was also concluded that the cylindrical samples showed more uniform responses to the acoustoelastic effect than the prismatic samples. Finally, the Damage Index proved itself to be a reliable tool to isolate the effects of damage and acoustoelasticity over the UPV.

La coda ultrasonore présente une haute sensibilité aux perturbations du milieu de propagation. L'analyse de la coda par la Coda Wave Interferometry (CWI) permet d'évaluer précisément la variation de la vitesse de propagation (résolution en relatif de 0,001 %). Une telle évaluation peut être utilisée pour le contrôle non destructif (ECND) d’un matériau ou d'une structure.Un essai expérimental est présenté au début comme exemple d’utilisation de la CWI pour l’ECND du béton. Face aux problèmes inhérents au degré de précision de cet essai, nous présentons un protocole conçu pour améliorer la fiabilité des résultats CWI. Nous vérifions expérimenta vérifient que ce protocole peut améliorer la répétabilité de l’essai en réduisant les biais provenant des fluctuations de température ambiante et des procédures expérimentales. Avec ce protocole, une étude du comportement de béton sous un chargement uni-axial en traction directe a été effectuée en utilisant la CWI. Les comportements élastique (l’effet acoustoélastique) et anélastique (l’effet Kaiser) du béton sont observés via les résultats CWI. Un coefficient acoustoélastique effectif (Bêta) a été déterminé et utilisé pour la détection d’un endommagement léger du béton.La CWI est ensuite utilisée pour la détection globale de défauts dans un milieu initialement linéaire (verre) en observant la modulation non linéaire. L’apparition de ce phénomène non linéaire est due à la présence des défauts et détectée par la variation des résultats CWI en fonction de l’amplitude de l’onde de pompe. Nous montrons que cette méthode permet la détection des défauts et d’évaluation du niveau d’endommagement d’une manière globale sans zone aveugle. / With their long and complex propagation paths, coda waves can probe the propagation medium repeatedly and show a high sensitivity to the perturbations to the medium, i.e. variations in propagation velocity. Since such variations may indicate the modification of elastic properties and Coda Wave interferometry (CWI) can determine it precisely (relative resolution of 0.001%), CWI is considered a promising method for non destructive testing and evaluation (NDT&E). An experimental test is presented as an example of the CWI use on concrete for NDT&E purpose. For solving the experimental repeatability issue revealed in this test, a bias-control protocol is designed to reduce the experimental bias in CWI results. It is experimentally confirmed that this protocol can remarkably improve the reliability of CWI results and the experimental repeatability. Together with this bias-control protocol, the CWI is used to study the behaviors of concrete under uni-axial load in direct tension. Both elastic (acoustoealstic effect) and inelastic (Kaiser effect) behaviors are observed via CWI results. Effective value of acoustoelastic coefficient is then determined from CWI results and used for the detection of an early-stage damage that artificially induced to the concrete specimen. A defect-detection method of an initially linear medium (glass) is then developed by using the CWI. Due to the nonlinearity brought by the defects, acoustic mixing effect occurred, and the observation of such effect is the indication of damage. The use of a broadband pump wave and the CWI makes possible to 1) detect the damage globally without blind zone and 2) assess the damage level in an effective manner.

Interrogating metals with ultrasonic waves can be used to evaluate their microstructural and mechanical properties. These techniques analyze ultrasonic wave features in order to make inferences on the medium of interest. Current research is being conducted to determine higher order elastic properties and characterize material degradation of 7075-T651 aluminum with ultrasonics. This thesis topic will use acoustoelasticity, the stress dependency of acoustic velocity, to accomplish these goals. Acoustoelasticity is a manifestation of the inherent nonlinearity in the interatomic binding energy, which appears mathematically as higher order elastic terms in the stress strain constitutive relation. The acoustoelasticity will be determined for longitudinal and shear waves propagating through a sample under uni-axial stress. Experimentally, specific techniques and tooling will be designed to insure accurate measurements of acoustic wave velocity as a function of stress. Using acoustoelasticity the third order elastic constants of 7075-T651 aluminum will be determined. Further, Al samples will be fatigue damaged and acoustoelasticity and third order elastic constants will be mapped versus damage. Literature will be used to verify measured values of acoustoelasticity as well as provide theoretical models for acoustoelastic dependence on damage.

[pt] A acoustoelasticidade estuda a variação da velocidade de ondas elásticas em corpos sujeitos a um estado de tensão inicial. A teoria da acoustoelasticidade consiste-se de um relação não-linear entre tensão e deformação que rege a resposta dinâmica de uma onda elástica sobreposta à pré deformação inicial. A teoria da acoustoelasticidade aplicada a ondas guiadas é um ramo de estudo extremamente novo. Seu desenvolvimento teórico para ondas de Lamb foi concluída em 2012, o que permitiu o cálculo da variação da velocidade em função da tensão. Ondas de Lamb são ondas elástica que propagam-se em placas de faces paralelas obedecendo às condições de contorno nas superfícies. Essas ondas são a princípio dispersivas. Modelagem por elementos finitos (MEF) é uma ferramenta útil para a análise das ondas ultrassônicas. A fim de abordar o efeito acoustoelástico utilizando método de elementos finitos pode-se utilizar as constantes elásticas eficazes. Por meio dessas é possível montar um tensor de rigidez anisotrópico equivalente, que por sua vez pode ser utilizado como a entrada de rigidez do material em softwares comerciais. O processo de inversão temporal é um método bem conhecido para a obtenção de ondas acústicas focalizadas no tempo e no espaço. No caso de ondas de Lamb, o uso de sinais de inversão temporal compensa a dispersão de cada modo de propagação, recomprime e focaliza a onda na posição de leitura. Nesta tese, o novo ramo da acoustoelasticidade em ondas de Lamb foi analisado e seu estado da arte revisado. A possibilidade de utilizar constantes elásticas eficazes para determinação da dependência da velocidade com a tensão e os erros nesta aproximação foram investigados. O uso do programa de elementos finitos Ansysr foi validado para propagação de ondas de Lamb monomodo em uma placa submetida a tração uniaxial. Em seguida, simulações de propagação de ondas de Lamb multimodais acoustoelásticas foram realizadas através do software e o efeito da carregamento na focalização foi analisado numericamente. Finalmente, experimentos foram realizadas em uma placa de alumínio carregada longitudinalmente. A viabilidade e limitações da utilização das características de focalização por inversão temporal a fim de medir a tensão são apontadas. / [en] The acoustoelasticity studies the variation of the elastic waves velocity in bodies subject to an initial stress state. The acoustoelastic theory consists of non-linear relationship between stress and strain that rules the dynamic response superimposed to the initial pre-deformation. The acoustoelastic theory applied to guided waves is a very new branch of study. The theoretical development of this theory for Lamb waves was completed in 2012, which enabled the calculation of velocity variation as a function of stress. Lamb waves are elastic waves that propagate in plates obeying the boundary conditions on the surface. These waves are a priori dispersive. Finite Element Method (FEM) is an useful tool for ultrasonic waves propagation analysis. In order to address the acoustoelastic effect employing FEM one can use the effective elastic constants. By these effective constants it is possible to assemble an equivalent anisotropic stiffness tensor, which can be the material stiffness input in commercial software. The time reversal process is a well-known method for obtaining focused acoustic waves in both time and space. In the case of Lamb waves, the use of time-reversed signals compensates the dispersion of each propagation mode, recompressing the wave and producing a focused signal at the reception position. In this thesis the new branch of acoustoelasticity for Lamb waves is thoroughly analyzed and its state of the art is reviewed. The possibility of using effective elastic constants for determination of the velocity dependence on stress and the errors in this approximation are investigated. The use of FEM in Ansysr is validated for single mode under uniaxial tensile stress. Then, the simulations of wideband multi-mode acoustoelastic Lamb waves is carried out in the numerical software, the time-reversal focusing ability is verified and the effect of uniaxial load on the focus is investigated. Finally, experiments were performed in an aluminum plate longitudinally loaded. The feasibility of using the time reversal focus characteristics in order to measure the strain is concluded and its limitations are pointed out.

Peu d’outils ont été développés pour le contrôle qualité industriel de textures sur des lignes de production. L’utilisation de techniques sans contact, à base d’ondes acoustiques, présente un avantage évident dans les secteurs agroalimentaire et cosmétique. L’acousto-élasticité dynamique (DAET) est une technique d’interaction entre une onde pompe basse-fréquence de compression/dilatation et une onde sonde ultrasonore, conduisant à l’estimation des propriétés viscoélastiques de la matière. Nous avons développé un modèle décrivant les variations du module viscoélastique : quantification des paramètres non linéaires élastiques (B/A,. C/A...) et visqueux (ωηB/A, ωηC/A...). La méthode DAET et le modèle ont ensuite été validés dans des milieux homogènes (eau, huiles et gels) conduisant à des non-linéarités viscoélastiques faibles (B/A < 15 et (ωηB/A <1). essentiellement liées à la composition du fluide ou un changement d’état. Les résultats les plus probants ont été obtenus dans des milieux granulaires ou constitués d’air (poudres sèches, mousses et billes creuses ): valeurs élevées des non-linéarités viscoélastiques (quadratiques, cubiques). Cette méthode pourra s’avérer être une alternative intéressante à la rhéométrie conventionnelle, en particulier pour la caractérisation de ces fluides complexes. / Few tools have been developed for industrial quality control of textures on production lines. The use of contactless techniques. based on acoustic wavcs, offers an obvious advantage in food-processing industry and cosmetics. The dynamic acoustoelastic testing (DAET) is based on the interaction between a low-frequency compressionlexpansion pump wave and an ultrasound probe wave. leading to the quantification of the viscoelastic properties of the matter. We have initially developed a model describing the variations of the viscoelastic modulus: quantification of nonlinear elastic (B/A, C/A...) and viscous (ωηB/A. ωηC/A...) parameters. The DAET method and related model were then validated in homogeneous media (water, oils and gels) leading to low values of viscoelastic nonlineaiities (B/A<15 and ωηB/A<1), essentially governed by the fluid nature or state change. However, the most significant results were obtained in granular or air-based media (dry powder, foam and hollow beads): high values of quadratic and cubic nonlinearities due to microinhomogeneitics. This method appears to be an interesting alternative to conventional rheometry, especially for the characterization of these complex fluids.