This research develops a procedure to determine the applied stresses in rails using the acoustoelastic effect of ultrasonic waves. Acoustoelasticity is defined as the stress dependency of ultrasonic wave speed or wave polarization. Analytical models are developed that predict the acoustoelastic effect for longitudinal waves, shear waves, Lamb waves, and Rayleigh waves. Using a programming tool, a numerical simulation of the models is generated to obtain the stress dependent curves of wave velocity and polarization of the various ultrasonic waves propagating in rail steel. A comparison of the sensitivity of the acoustoelastic effect is made to determine the feasibility of ultrasonic waves for further study. Rayleigh waves are found to be most sensitive to stress change. Rayleigh waves are generated using ultrasonic transducer and detected using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV). The LDV measures the in-plane and out-of-plane velocities. Polarization is defined as the ratio of in-plane and out-of-plane displacements. Initially, polarization is determined for the specimen in unstressed condition. Thereafter, the rail specimen is stressed in a compression testing machine, the experiment repeated, and the polarization determined. Thus, Rayleigh wave polarization is obtained as a function of applied stress. Finally, the change in polarization obtained experimentally is compared with the analytical model.

This research develops a procedure to determine the applied stresses in rails using the acoustoelastic effect of ultrasonic waves. Acoustoelasticity is defined as the stress dependency of ultrasonic wave speed or wave polarization. Analytical models are developed that predict the acoustoelastic effect for longitudinal waves, shear waves, Lamb waves, and Rayleigh waves. Using a programming tool, a numerical simulation of the models is generated to obtain the stress dependent curves of wave velocity and polarization of the various ultrasonic waves propagating in rail steel. A comparison of the sensitivity of the acoustoelastic effect is made to determine the feasibility of ultrasonic waves for further study. Rayleigh waves are found to be most sensitive to stress change. Rayleigh waves are generated using ultrasonic transducer and detected using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV). The LDV measures the in-plane and out-of-plane velocities. Polarization is defined as the ratio of in-plane and out-of-plane displacements. Initially, polarization is determined for the specimen in unstressed condition. Thereafter, the rail specimen is stressed in a compression testing machine, the experiment repeated, and the polarization determined. Thus, Rayleigh wave polarization is obtained as a function of applied stress. Finally, the change in polarization obtained experimentally is compared with the analytical model.

This research develops a procedure to determine the applied stresses in rails using the acoustoelastic effect of ultrasonic waves. Acoustoelasticity is defined as the stress dependency of ultrasonic wave speed or wave polarization. Analytical models are developed that predict the acoustoelastic effect for longitudinal waves, shear waves, Lamb waves, and Rayleigh waves. Using a programming tool, a numerical simulation of the models is generated to obtain the stress dependent curves of wave velocity and polarization of the various ultrasonic waves propagating in rail steel. A comparison of the sensitivity of the acoustoelastic effect is made to determine the feasibility of ultrasonic waves for further study. Rayleigh waves are found to be most sensitive to stress change. Rayleigh waves are generated using ultrasonic transducer and detected using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV). The LDV measures the in-plane and out-of-plane velocities. Polarization is defined as the ratio of in-plane and out-of-plane displacements. Initially, polarization is determined for the specimen in unstressed condition. Thereafter, the rail specimen is stressed in a compression testing machine, the experiment repeated, and the polarization determined. Thus, Rayleigh wave polarization is obtained as a function of applied stress. Finally, the change in polarization obtained experimentally is compared with the analytical model.

This research develops a procedure to determine the applied stresses in rails using the acoustoelastic effect of ultrasonic waves. Acoustoelasticity is defined as the stress dependency of ultrasonic wave speed or wave polarization. Analytical models are developed that predict the acoustoelastic effect for longitudinal waves, shear waves, Lamb waves, and Rayleigh waves. Using a programming tool, a numerical simulation of the models is generated to obtain the stress dependent curves of wave velocity and polarization of the various ultrasonic waves propagating in rail steel. A comparison of the sensitivity of the acoustoelastic effect is made to determine the feasibility of ultrasonic waves for further study. Rayleigh waves are found to be most sensitive to stress change. Rayleigh waves are generated using ultrasonic transducer and detected using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV). The LDV measures the in-plane and out-of-plane velocities. Polarization is defined as the ratio of in-plane and out-of-plane displacements. Initially, polarization is determined for the specimen in unstressed condition. Thereafter, the rail specimen is stressed in a compression testing machine, the experiment repeated, and the polarization determined. Thus, Rayleigh wave polarization is obtained as a function of applied stress. Finally, the change in polarization obtained experimentally is compared with the analytical model.

This thesis describes procedures and theory for a family of one-sided ultrasonic methods for determining third order elastic constants (TOEC) using sets of angle-beam wedges mounted on one side of a specimen. The methods are based on the well-known acoustoelastic effect, which is the change of wave speed with applied loads and is a consequence of the mechanical nonlinearity of a material. Increases in material nonlinearity have been correlated to the progression of damage, indicating that tracking changes in TOECs may provide a practical means of monitoring damage accumulation at the microstructural level prior to formation of macroscopic defects. Ultrasonic methods are one of the only ways to measure TOECs, and most prior techniques have utilized wave propagation paths parallel and perpendicular to the loading directions. A few additional ultrasonic techniques reported in the literature have employed oblique paths but with immersion coupling. These reported techniques are generally unsuitable for field implementation. The one-sided contact approach described here is applicable for in situ measurements of TOECs and thus lays the foundation for tracking of TOECs with damage. Theory is reviewed and further developed for calculating predicted velocity changes, and thus time shifts, as a function of uniaxial tensile loading for longitudinal, shear vertical, and shear horizontal waves in the context of angle-beam transducers mounted on the surface of the specimen. A comparison is made to published results where possible. The inverse problem of determining the three TOECs of an isotropic material from three measurements employing three different angle beam configurations is comprehensively analyzed. Four configurations providing well-posed solutions are identified and examined. A detailed sensitivity analysis is carried out to identify the best mounting configuration, wave mode combinations, refracted angles and geometry requirements for recovering the three TOECs. Two transducer mounting configurations are considered: (1) attached (glued-on) transducers potentially suitable for in situ monitoring, and (2) floating (oil-coupled) transducers potentially suitable for single measurements. Limited experimental results are presented for the attached case using two longitudinal measurements and one shear vertical measurement. The floating case experiments utilized three of the four well-posed solutions, and measurements were made on several aluminum alloys and low carbon steel. Key experimental issues are identified and discussed for both transducer mounting configurations.

Os ensaios não destrutivos visam avaliar um elemento sem gerar danos a ele com a técnica empregada. Um tipo de ensaio não destrutivo é o método da velocidade do pulso de ondas ultrassônicas. Este método é comumente utilizado para determinar propriedades elásticas de um dado material e verificar danos no interior dos elementos estudados. Outra aplicação do ultrassom é a medição do nível de tensão num material por meio da propagação das ondas ultrassônicas, tendo como base a teoria da acustoelasticidade. Entretanto, o uso do ultrassom para esta finalidade ainda é pouco difundido, principalmente na aplicação em estruturas de concreto. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a possibilidade de medir tensões em estruturas de concreto com o uso do ultrassom. Para tanto, foram realizados ensaios de compressão uniaxial em prismas de concreto. Durante os ensaios, foram emitidas ondas ultrassônicas nos elementos para cada nível de tensão aplicada no material. A partir destes ensaios, foi feito um estudo do comportamento acustoelástico do concreto. Verificou-se que as velocidades das ondas ultrassônicas variaram em função da intensidade das tensões normais de compressão existentes nos corpos de prova. Com base na variação das velocidades, os coeficientes acustoelásticos do concreto de cada prisma foram determinados e relacionados com propriedades do concreto. Verificou-se a possibilidade de se estimar o nível mínimo de tensão em determinadas estruturas de concreto a partir do conhecimento de seus coeficientes acustoelásticos. Concluiu-se que é possível estimar tensões em estruturas de concreto utilizando o ultrassom. / Nondestructive tests aim to analyze an element generating no damages. The pulse velocity of ultrasonic waves method is a type of nondestructive test. This method is commonly used to determine elastic properties of materials and to verify damages inside studied elements. Another application for ultrasound is the measurement of stress level in a material by means of propagation of ultrasonic waves. This application is based on the theory of acoustoelasticity. However, the use of ultrasound is still unusual for this purpose, mainly in application in concrete structures. This work intended to study the possibility of measuring stresses in concrete structures with the use of ultrasound. Uniaxial compression tests were performed on concrete prisms. During tests, ultrasonic waves were propagated in elements for each level of applied stress in the material. Then, a study about acoustoelastic behavior of concrete was performed. It was verified that the velocities of ultrasonic waves changed according to the intensity of normal compressive stresses there were in the specimens. Based on the variation of velocities, the acoustoelastic coefficients of concrete were determined for each prism. The coefficients were related with properties of concrete. The possibility of estimating the minimum level of stress in certain structures of concrete from their acoustoelastic coefficients was verified. It was concluded it is possible to estimate stresses in concrete structures using ultrasound.

Extensos estudos realizados nas últimas décadas sobre a propagação de ondas ultrassônicas em sólidos levaram ao desenvolvimento de técnicas não destrutivas para a avaliação da segurança e integridade de estruturas e componentes industriais. O interesse na aplicação de técnicas ultrassônicas para medição de tensões aplicadas e residuais decorre da mudança mensurável da velocidade das ondas ultrassônicas na presença de um campo de tensões, fenômeno conhecido como efeito acustoelástico. Uma teoria de acustoelasticidade fornece um meio atrativo e não destrutivo de medir a tensão média ao longo do caminho percorrido pela onda. O estudo da propagação das ondas ultrassônicas em meios homogêneos anisotrópicos sob tensão conduz a um problema não linear de autovalores dado pela equação de Christoffel generalizada. A característica não linear deste problema decorre da interdependência entre as constantes elásticas efetivas do material e as tensões atuantes. A medição experimental de tensões por técnicas ultrassônicas é um problema inverso da acustoelasticidade. Esta dissertação apresenta a implementação de um algoritmo numérico, baseado no método proposto por Degtyar e Rokhlin, para solução do problema inverso da acustoelasticidade em sólidos ortotrópicos sujeitos a um estado plano de tensões. A solução da equação de Christoffel generalizada apresenta dificuldades de natureza numérica e prática. A estabilidade e a precisão do algoritmo desenvolvido, bem como a influência das incertezas na medição experimental das velocidades das ondas ultrassônicas, foram então investigadas. Dados sintéticos para as velocidades das ondas ultrassônicas de incidência oblíqua em uma placa sujeita a um estado plano de tensões foram gerados pela solução direta da equação de Christoffel generalizada para ilustrar a aplicação do algoritmo desenvolvido. O objetivo maior desta dissertação é a disponibilização de uma nova ferramenta de cálculo para suporte às atividades experimentais de medição de tensões por ultrassom no país. / Extensive studies carried out in the last decades on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in solids led to the development of nondestructive techniques for the assessment of the safety and integrity of industrial structures and components. The interest in the application of ultrasound techniques for stress measurement for example comes from the measurable change in the speed of the ultrasonic elastic waves in the presence of a stress field, a phenomenon known as acoustoelastic effect. An acoustoelastic theory provides an attractive way of non-destructively measuring the average stress along the waves path. The study of the propagation of ultrasonic waves in homogenous anisotropic bodies under stress leads to a nonlinear eigenvalue problem given by the generalized Christoffel equation. The nonlinearity characteristic of the problem derives from the interdependence between the materials effective elastic constants and the acting stresses. The experimental measurement of stresses using ultrasound techniques is an inverse problem of acoustoelasticity. This dissertation presents the implementation of a numeric algorithm, based on the method proposed by Degtyar and Rokhlin, for solution of the inverse problem of acoustoelasticity in orthotropic solids subjected to a plane stress state. The solution of the generalized Christoffel equation poses difficulties of numerical and practical order. The stability and precision of the algorithm developed, as well as the influence of the experimental uncertainties in the measurement of the speed of the ultrasonic waves, were thus investigated. Synthetic data for the speeds of ultrasonic waves of oblique incidence in a plane-stress plate were generated to illustrate the application of the algorithm developed. The main objective of this dissertation is to make available in the country a new numerical tool to support the use of ultrasonic waves for experimental stress analysis.

Extensos estudos realizados nas últimas décadas sobre a propagação de ondas ultrassônicas em sólidos levaram ao desenvolvimento de técnicas não destrutivas para a avaliação da segurança e integridade de estruturas e componentes industriais. O interesse na aplicação de técnicas ultrassônicas para medição de tensões aplicadas e residuais decorre da mudança mensurável da velocidade das ondas ultrassônicas na presença de um campo de tensões, fenômeno conhecido como efeito acustoelástico. Uma teoria de acustoelasticidade fornece um meio atrativo e não destrutivo de medir a tensão média ao longo do caminho percorrido pela onda. O estudo da propagação das ondas ultrassônicas em meios homogêneos anisotrópicos sob tensão conduz a um problema não linear de autovalores dado pela equação de Christoffel generalizada. A característica não linear deste problema decorre da interdependência entre as constantes elásticas efetivas do material e as tensões atuantes. A medição experimental de tensões por técnicas ultrassônicas é um problema inverso da acustoelasticidade. Esta dissertação apresenta a implementação de um algoritmo numérico, baseado no método proposto por Degtyar e Rokhlin, para solução do problema inverso da acustoelasticidade em sólidos ortotrópicos sujeitos a um estado plano de tensões. A solução da equação de Christoffel generalizada apresenta dificuldades de natureza numérica e prática. A estabilidade e a precisão do algoritmo desenvolvido, bem como a influência das incertezas na medição experimental das velocidades das ondas ultrassônicas, foram então investigadas. Dados sintéticos para as velocidades das ondas ultrassônicas de incidência oblíqua em uma placa sujeita a um estado plano de tensões foram gerados pela solução direta da equação de Christoffel generalizada para ilustrar a aplicação do algoritmo desenvolvido. O objetivo maior desta dissertação é a disponibilização de uma nova ferramenta de cálculo para suporte às atividades experimentais de medição de tensões por ultrassom no país. / Extensive studies carried out in the last decades on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in solids led to the development of nondestructive techniques for the assessment of the safety and integrity of industrial structures and components. The interest in the application of ultrasound techniques for stress measurement for example comes from the measurable change in the speed of the ultrasonic elastic waves in the presence of a stress field, a phenomenon known as acoustoelastic effect. An acoustoelastic theory provides an attractive way of non-destructively measuring the average stress along the waves path. The study of the propagation of ultrasonic waves in homogenous anisotropic bodies under stress leads to a nonlinear eigenvalue problem given by the generalized Christoffel equation. The nonlinearity characteristic of the problem derives from the interdependence between the materials effective elastic constants and the acting stresses. The experimental measurement of stresses using ultrasound techniques is an inverse problem of acoustoelasticity. This dissertation presents the implementation of a numeric algorithm, based on the method proposed by Degtyar and Rokhlin, for solution of the inverse problem of acoustoelasticity in orthotropic solids subjected to a plane stress state. The solution of the generalized Christoffel equation poses difficulties of numerical and practical order. The stability and precision of the algorithm developed, as well as the influence of the experimental uncertainties in the measurement of the speed of the ultrasonic waves, were thus investigated. Synthetic data for the speeds of ultrasonic waves of oblique incidence in a plane-stress plate were generated to illustrate the application of the algorithm developed. The main objective of this dissertation is to make available in the country a new numerical tool to support the use of ultrasonic waves for experimental stress analysis.

Os ensaios não destrutivos visam avaliar um elemento sem gerar danos a ele com a técnica empregada. Um tipo de ensaio não destrutivo é o método da velocidade do pulso de ondas ultrassônicas. Este método é comumente utilizado para determinar propriedades elásticas de um dado material e verificar danos no interior dos elementos estudados. Outra aplicação do ultrassom é a medição do nível de tensão num material por meio da propagação das ondas ultrassônicas, tendo como base a teoria da acustoelasticidade. Entretanto, o uso do ultrassom para esta finalidade ainda é pouco difundido, principalmente na aplicação em estruturas de concreto. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a possibilidade de medir tensões em estruturas de concreto com o uso do ultrassom. Para tanto, foram realizados ensaios de compressão uniaxial em prismas de concreto. Durante os ensaios, foram emitidas ondas ultrassônicas nos elementos para cada nível de tensão aplicada no material. A partir destes ensaios, foi feito um estudo do comportamento acustoelástico do concreto. Verificou-se que as velocidades das ondas ultrassônicas variaram em função da intensidade das tensões normais de compressão existentes nos corpos de prova. Com base na variação das velocidades, os coeficientes acustoelásticos do concreto de cada prisma foram determinados e relacionados com propriedades do concreto. Verificou-se a possibilidade de se estimar o nível mínimo de tensão em determinadas estruturas de concreto a partir do conhecimento de seus coeficientes acustoelásticos. Concluiu-se que é possível estimar tensões em estruturas de concreto utilizando o ultrassom. / Nondestructive tests aim to analyze an element generating no damages. The pulse velocity of ultrasonic waves method is a type of nondestructive test. This method is commonly used to determine elastic properties of materials and to verify damages inside studied elements. Another application for ultrasound is the measurement of stress level in a material by means of propagation of ultrasonic waves. This application is based on the theory of acoustoelasticity. However, the use of ultrasound is still unusual for this purpose, mainly in application in concrete structures. This work intended to study the possibility of measuring stresses in concrete structures with the use of ultrasound. Uniaxial compression tests were performed on concrete prisms. During tests, ultrasonic waves were propagated in elements for each level of applied stress in the material. Then, a study about acoustoelastic behavior of concrete was performed. It was verified that the velocities of ultrasonic waves changed according to the intensity of normal compressive stresses there were in the specimens. Based on the variation of velocities, the acoustoelastic coefficients of concrete were determined for each prism. The coefficients were related with properties of concrete. The possibility of estimating the minimum level of stress in certain structures of concrete from their acoustoelastic coefficients was verified. It was concluded it is possible to estimate stresses in concrete structures using ultrasound.

Detection, characterization and prognosis of damage in civil, aerospace and mechanical structures, known as structural health monitoring (SHM), have been a growing area of research over the last few decades. As several in-service civil, mechanical and aerospace structures are approaching or even exceeding their design life, the implementation of SHM systems is becoming a necessity. SHM is the key for transforming schedule-driven inspection and maintenance into condition-based maintenance, which promises enhanced safety and overall life-cycle cost reduction. While damage detection and characterization can be achieved, among other techniques, by analyzing the dynamic response of the structure under test, damage prognosis requires the additional knowledge of loading patterns acting on the structure. Accurate, nondestructive, and reference-free measurement of the state-of-stress in structural components has been a long standing challenge without a fully-satisfactory outcome. In light of this, the main goal of this research effort is to advance the current state of the art of structural health and loading monitoring, with focus being cast on impedance-based SHM and acoustoelastic-based stress measurement techniques. While impedance-based SHM has been successfully implemented as a damage detection technique, the utilization of electromechanical impedance measurements for damage characterization imposes several challenges. These challenges are mainly stemming from the high-frequency nature of impedance measurements. Current acoustoelastic-based practices, on the other hand, are hindered by their poor sensitivity and the need for calibration at a known state of stress. Addressing these challenges by developing and integrating theoretical models, numerical algorithms and experimental techniques defines the main objectives of this work. A key enabler for both health and loading monitoring techniques is the utilization of piezoelectric transducers to excite the structure and measure its response. For this purpose, a new three-layer spectral element for piezoelectric-structure interaction has been developed in this work, where the adhesive bonding layer has been explicitly modeled. Using this model, the dynamic response of piezoelectric-augmented structures has been investigated. A thorough parametric study has been conducted to provide a better understanding of bonding layer impact on the response of the coupled structure. A procedure for piezoelectric material characterization utilizing its free electromechanical impedance signature has been also developed. Furthermore, impedance-based damage characterization has been investigated, where a novel optimization-based damage identification approach has been developed. This approach exploits the capabilities of spectral element method, along with the periodic nature of impedance peaks shifts with respect to damage location, to solve the ill-posed damage identification problem in a computationally efficient manner. The second part of this work investigates acoustoelastic-based stress measurements, where model-based technique that is capable of analyzing dispersive waves to calculate the state of stress has been developed. A criterion for optimal selection of excitation waveforms has been proposed in this work, taking into consideration the sensitivity to the state of stress, the robustness against material and geometric uncertainties, and the ability to obtain a reflections-free response at desired measurement locations. The impact of material- and geometry-related uncertainties on the performance of the stress measurement algorithm has also been investigated through a comprehensive sensitivity analysis. The developed technique has been experimentally validated, where true reference-free, uncalibrated, acoustoelastic-based stress measurements have been successfully conducted. Finally, the applicability of the aforementioned health and loading monitoring techniques to railroad track components has been investigated. Extensive in-lab experiments have been carried out to evaluate the performance of these techniques on lab-scale and full-scale rail joints. Furthermore, in-field experiments have been conducted, in collaboration with Norfolk Southern and the Transportation Technology Center Inc., to further investigate the performance of these techniques under real life operating and environmental conditions. / Ph. D. / Structural health monitoring (SMH) addresses the problem of damage detection and identification in civil, aerospace and mechanical structures. As several in-service structure are approaching or even exceeding their design life, the implementation of SMH systems is becoming a necessity. Besides Damage identification, a complete assessment of the structure under test requires the knowledge of loading patterns acting on it. Accurate, nondestructive, and reference-free measurement of the state-of-stress in structural components has been a long-standing challenge without a fully satisfactory outcome. This research effort aims to advance the current state-of-the-art of structural health and loading monitoring with the focus being cast on impedance-based SHM and acoustoelastic-based stress measurement techniques. Theoretical models and numerical algorithms have been developed as a part of this work to facilitate impedance-based damage identification and provide a better understanding of a number of factors affecting the perfomance of this technique. A new acoustoelastic-based stress measurement technique has also been developed and experimentally validated. Using the technique, true reference-free, uncalibrated stress measurements have been successfully conducted for the first time. The applicability of the aforementioned techniques to the railroad industry has been investigated, where their perfomance is evaluated under real-life operating and environmental conditions.