Active transportation (AT) is a form of physical activity involving human-powered transportation (e.g., walking) and is associated with health benefits. However, the majority of Canadians do not use AT. Although environmental factors, such as proximity, are correlated with AT, interventions to change such factors have been ineffective. According to social cognitive theory, both environmental and personal factors (i.e., social and spatial cognitions) may influence motivated behaviour. The social cognitions of interest in the present study included self-regulatory efficacy to schedule (i.e., confidence to regularly schedule walking for AT), and to overcome barriers (i.e., confidence to cope with barriers to walking for AT). Spatial cognitions included distance and travel time cognitions. The purpose of the study was to examine whether social cognitive personal factors (i.e., scheduling self-efficacy, barriers self-efficacy), spatial cognitive personal factors (i.e., distance and travel time cognitions), and an environmental factor (i.e., proximity) were associated with walking for AT to/from a university campus over a two-week period in a convenience sample of adults. Participants in this prospective observational study were a convenience sample of 105 students, faculty, and staff at a western Canadian university, who ranged in age from 17 to 55 years (M = 24.62 years, SD = 8.15). Participants completed three online surveys over a two-week period. Social cognitions for the following two-week period and spatial cognitions were assessed at Time 1. Recall of walking for AT to/from a university campus in the previous week was assessed at Time 2 and Time 3. Total walking for AT to/from campus over the two-week period was the outcome variable. The overall hierarchical multiple regression model predicting AT from the social and spatial cognitions and proximity was significant (R2adjusted = .53; p < .01). As hypothesized, scheduling (ßstd = .44, p < .01) and barriers (ßstd = .23, p < .05) self-efficacy were associated with AT. Scheduling self-efficacy was the strongest predictor. Contrary to hypotheses, distance and travel time cognitions and proximity were not significant (ps > .05). Social cognitions, particularly self-regulatory efficacy to schedule, and efficacy to overcome barriers, may play an important role in individuals use of walking for AT to/from a university campus. Future research should continue to examine social cognitive-theory based personal and environmental predictors of AT, such as self-regulatory efficacy to goal set, outcome expectations, the weather and residential density, to better understand potential determinants of this health-promoting type of physical activity.

Walking for active transportation (AT) has been associated with individuals meeting the recommended physical activity levels. Global and local (i.e., Saskatoon) reported walking rates are low. Barriers perceived as a challenge (i.e., frequent and limiting) may influence walking. Individual differences, such as self-regulatory efficacy (SRE), may help people persist in overcoming challenging barriers, with those being more efficacious having greater persistence than their lower efficacy counterparts. The overall purpose of the present self-efficacy theory-based study was to examine whether individuals with higher and lower SRE differed in their persistence to overcome barriers to walking to/from a university campus under two experimental conditions (i.e., higher versus lower challenge). The experimental study design was a two (between: higher versus lower SRE to overcome barriers) by two (within: higher versus lower challenge vignette) mixed factorial, with three measures of persistence as the dependent variables (i.e., number of written solutions to overcoming barriers, time taken to record the solutions, and anticipatory perseverance to overcome barriers to walking in the near future). Based on self-efficacy theory and past research, individuals who had higher SRE were expected to have significantly higher persistence than their lower SRE counterparts after reading the higher challenge vignette. Participants were young adults who walked to/from a university campus. Higher and lower SRE groups were identified via a median split (nhigher = 22; nlower = 23). Each participant read a higher and lower challenge vignette (i.e., order counterbalanced across participants) in a lab-based setting, followed by completion of persistence measures after each vignette reading. Findings from a series of two by two ANOVAS provided partial support of the study hypothesis. A significant interaction between SRE groups and challenge vignettes was found with the persistence measure of time spent reporting coping solutions, F(1,43) = 4.64, p = .037. As expected, results from simple main effects showed the higher SRE group significantly differed from the lower SRE group under the higher challenge vignette condition, F (1,43) = 5.27, p = .027, by spending significantly more time reporting solutions. No other significant interactions were found between SRE groups x vignettes with the remaining measures of persistence: (1) number of reported solutions F (1,43) = 3.15, p = .083, and (2) anticipatory perseverance F (1,43) = 0.05, p = .82. The present study contributed new information on challenging barriers to walking for AT. Findings from the experiment partially supported contentions from self-efficacy theory about the importance of SRE beliefs to persistence when individuals are challenged. Future research should continue to examine the potential role that SRE beliefs play in whether individuals walk for AT.

Master of Public Health / Department of Kinesiology / Katie M. Heinrich / Introduction: Transportation-related physical activity can help adults can meet moderate physical activity guidelines. Only 52% of United States adults meet the physical activity guidelines on a regular basis. Active transportation (AT) is a healthier alternative to motorized transport and incorporates more physical activity into one’s day. Universities with supportive built environment features, such as pedestrian and bicycling infrastructure and amenities, can support AT choices. This study was conducted to (1) examine differences in the overall physical activity and AT behaviors of university students, faculty and staff in 2008 and 2016; and (2) explore influential factors for transportation choice and perceptions of the campus built environment in 2016. Physical activity and AT behaviors were hypothesized to be greater in 2016 than 2008 due to changes in supportive built environment features on campus. Methods: All students, faculty and staff members at Kansas State University’s Manhattan campus were eligible to participate in this repeated cross-sectional study by completing a survey in 2008 and 2016. Similar survey questions were asked both years to allow for comparisons. Questions asked about physical activity levels, transportation modes, factors influencing mode choice, and (in 2016) written feedback regarding built environment changes on campus and additional changes needed. After dichotomizing responses by role (students or faculty/staff), independent samples t-tests were used to assess differences in physical activity and transportation modes between survey years. The most influential reasons for transportation mode in 2016 were identified and compared by role. Multiple linear regression models were used to predict variance within each transportation mode. Themes were identified within the written feedback. Results: In spring 2016, 1006 participants (815 students, 80 faculty, and 111 staff members) completed the survey. This compared to 800 participants in spring 2008 (368 students, 256 faculty, and 176 staff members). There was a significant difference for greater moderate but not vigorous physical activity for both students and faculty/staff in 2016 than 2008. Days per week of driving, biking, and other transportation were significantly greater for students, while driving, walking, and biking were significantly greater for faculty/staff in 2016 than 2008. For students, linear regression predicted 21.4% of the variance for driving, 14.7% of walking, and 5.4% of biking for transport. Strongest predictors for students were: health benefits (β = -0.27) and time constraints (β = 0.21) for driving, traffic congestion (β = 0.19) and length of time frequenting campus (β = -0.17) for walking, and safety concerns for crime (β = -0.26) for biking. For faculty/staff, linear regression predicted 23.5% of the variance for driving, 70.3% of walking, 29.8% of biking, and 14.0% of other transport. Strongest predictors for faculty/staff were: time constraints (β = 0.34) and health benefits (β = -0.30) for driving, health benefits (β = 0.28) and time constraints (β = -0.55) for walking, environmental concerns (e.g., pollution; β = 0.35) and safety concerns for crime (β = -0.43) for biking, and weather (β = -0.37) for other transportation. From 436 written responses, main themes for AT influences were: construction (n = 174), parking (n = 128), walking (n = 99), and biking (n = 64). From 403 responses for suggestions for improvements on the commute to campus main themes were: bike lanes (n = 85), sidewalks (n = 29), limits of construction (n = 28), and KSU master plan (n = 26). Conclusions: Time constraints was a key factor for both students and faculty/staff that positively predicted driving and negatively predicted walking behaviors. Few campus built environment features emerged as key predictive factors. Understanding key influences for transportation-related physical activity and commuting behaviors in a university population are useful for health behavior promotion as well as campus planning. Future research should further study the relationship between mode of transportation and other health behaviors in students, faculty, and staff.

abstract: Active transportation to school (ATS) has received an increasing amount of attention over the past decade due to its promising health contributions. Most of the existing research that surrounds ATS investigates factors from the physical environment as well as factors from the individual perspective that influence walking and biking to school. This research attempts to add to the existing knowledge by exploring the impact that social relationships within the neighborhood have on ATS. A model, based on social ecological theory, was presented and tested to examine elements thought to influence ATS. A logistic regression analysis was run to determine the odds of students walking or biking based on the influence of each construct within the model. Results indicated that the physical and socio-cultural constructs were directly and significantly related to ATS behavior while the construct of safety had an indirect effect. These findings support the idea that there are several factors that operate within and across different ecological levels to influence the mode of transportation to school. Therefore, programs to promote ATS should involve multi-level strategies. In addition to the physical environment, interventions should address interpersonal relationships within the family, school, and neighborhood. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Community Resources and Development 2015

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In the context of epidemiological transitions in Latin American countries evidence is scarce. In Colombia, despite a broad policy framework for healthy lifestyles promotion, surveillance of movement behaviours including physical activity and sedentary behaviours has been limited. Therefore, this thesis aims to: a) Describe indicators of physical activity and sedentary behaviours among Colombian children and adolescents; b) determine the factors associated with meeting physical activity guidelines, engaging in active play, using active transportation and spending excessive recreational screen time among Colombian children and adolescents; and c) draw international comparisons of physical activity and sedentary behaviour indicators. To accomplish this, cross-sectional data from the National Survey of Nutrition in Colombia 2015-2016 and the Global Matrix of Physical Activity in Children and Youth 3.0 were analyzed. This dissertation compiles five research manuscripts prepared and submitted for publication in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Paper one describes physical activity indicators and correlates among Colombian children and found that a low proportion of children and adolescents in Colombia are physically active, with a consistently lower prevalence among females across all age groups. Paper two depicts the national situation of active transportation to school, indicating a non-negligible prevalence of this behaviour and several correlates to guide the design of strategies to promote walking and biking to school in Colombia. Paper three focused on recreational screen time and its correlates and found a high prevalence of excessive recreational screen time that increases with age. Paper four puts Colombian data in global context with nine other countries with a similar human development index participating in the Global Matrix 3.0 initiative. This study compared grades of behavioural and sources of influence indicators and found similarly low performance across countries. In paper five a latent profile analysis approach was used to build active transportation profiles that contribute to understand active commuting to school across 49 countries from the Global Matrix 3.0. This dissertation helps fill gaps in knowledge in Colombia, and middle-income countries more broadly, providing national estimates of physical activity and sedentary behaviours of children aged 3-17 years for the first time in the surveillance history of the country.

This research examines the emergence of cycling-supportive land-use and transportation policies in Ontario and Hamilton, Ontario between 1990 and 2016. The focus of this thesis is on two questions that have been unexplored in previous research: (1) what cycling-supportive policies emerged in Provincial and Municipal government during this time?; and (2) what role, if any, did the Provincial position on cycling play in the development of Hamilton, Ontario cycling policies? A primary and secondary document review was undertaken to identify patterns between historical Provincial and Municipal policies. Three types of results are presented: (1) an examination of amendments to the Ontario Planning Act, emphasizing its effect on the role of policy in Ontario, the structure of the Ontario planning system, and on Municipal conformity; (2) a detailed review of emergent cycling-supportive policies and trends in Ontario and Hamilton, Ontario between 1990 and 2016; and (3) an analysis of evidence showing the influence of Provincial cycling-supportive policies on Hamilton plan policies. This research concludes that (1) novel cycling-supportive policies have emerged at both the Municipal and Provincial levels during the research period, and (2) evidence exists that Provincial land-use and transportation policies have influenced Hamilton’s cycling policy over the research period. / February 2017

This thesis intends to demonstrate how capital infrastructure investments can be targeted objectively, using the "Safe Routes to School" (SRTS) program for context. SRTS impacts physical activity, a determinant of childhood obesity by encouraging children’s regular active transportation use. This thesis supports the widespread implementation of SRTS and has developed the "Shelling Model" to objectively identify schools for programming. Accordingly, the "Shelling Model" aims to objectively identify physical and socio-economic environment variables impacting HISD-E middle school neighborhoods’ walkability. The "Shelling Model" is a first step in creating a walkability index for which pedestrian orientation levels can be identified and schools targeted. This model facilitates the identification of variables, providing insight into neighborhood walkability levels. Revealed by statistically significant variables, in combination with Walkscore and Catchment regression models’ respective 45.5 and 13.6 Adjusted R-Square values, the "Shelling" archetype proves a useful tool for investigating the walkability of HISD-E middle school neighborhoods.

This thesis examines the spatial variation in bicycle commuting across New Orleans. It identifies where in the city bicycle commuting is most and least prevalent. It also explores factors that are promoting and discouraging utilitarian bicycling. A review of existing literature on variables found to influence transportation bicycling is conducted, and a survey is disseminated to residents across the city to determine some of the motivations for and obstacles to transportation bicycling locally. Additionally, case studies are compiled pertaining to two neighborhoods falling on opposite ends of the bike-commute spectrum. These include analysis of socio-economic and demographic data; an evaluation of the built environment using maps and field observation; and interviews to assess residents’ attitudes about and experiences with transportation bicycling. In the end, this thesis should be helpful in pinpointing variables influencing bicycle commute rates and in determining the types of policies and investments that may be most effective in encouraging more bicycling in New Orleans and across the country.

This research investigates the uses and perceptions of the population of the East Carrollton Area in New Orleans so as to evaluate the possible outcomes of urban design intervention and policy changes. Using GIS, field notes, structured interviews and a population survey, this research evaluates how much the built environment influences the uses of the neighborhood open space. Subsequently, it evaluates how the neighborhood open space is perceived as a place as opposed to a transportation infrastructure. Overall, the built environment affects the experience of the residents when they perform leisure activities in the neighborhood open space. Major deterrents to functional use and active transportation are related to social factors and the social environment. The neighborhood open space is largely perceived as an asset by the residents. It can be a valid replacement for urban parks when the population cannot access them.