Introduction: Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a highly heterogeneous disease which renders risk stratification at diagnosis of high importance to personalize therapy. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) offers the highest chance for sustained remission in most AML patients, but usually comes at the risk of a significant treatment-related mortality. The red cell distribution width (RDW) is an universally accessible parameter that identifies individuals with a higher mortality in many diseases, including some hematological entities. However, the impact of diagnostic RDW levels in AML – especially in the context of a HSCT consolidation - has not been evaluated so far. Purpose: To evaluate the prognostic impact of RDW levels at AML diagnosis. Methods: A total of 294 newly diagnosed AML patients (median age 60.6, range 14.3-76.5 years), with available diagnostic RDW levels were retrospectively included in this analysis. All patients received a consolidation therapy with an allogeneic HSCT in curative intention between August 2007 and December 2020 at the University Medical Center Leipzig. The RDW was measured in all patients at AML diagnosis before the start of cytoreductive therapies. Results: RDW levels at diagnosis were highly variable (median 16.6%, range 12%-30.6%) and above the upper level of normal (>15%) in 73% of the analyzed AML patients. Patients with RDW levels above 15% did not have worse outcomes compared to patients with low diagnostic RDW levels. However, when the cohort was dichotomized according to a receiver operating characteristic (ROC)-based optimal cut-point (20.7%), patients with high RDW levels had a significantly higher non-relapse mortality (NRM), shorter overall survival and a trend for shorter event-free survival, while the risk of relapse or disease progression was similar in both groups. In multivariate analyses, the RDW remained an independent prognostic factor for higher NRM after adjustment for the body mass index at diagnosis. Patients with a higher RDW were more likely to harbor a secondary AML, as well as to harbor secondary AML-associated gene mutations (i.e. JAK2, ASXL1, or spliceosome mutations, especially SRSF2). Conclusion: High RDW levels at diagnosis represent an independent risk marker for a higher mortality following allogeneic HSCT. When confirmed in prospective clinical trials, the RDW might help to personalize AML consolidation therapy including conditioning regimens before allogeneic HSCT.:1. Bibliographische Beschreibung 2. Abkürzungsverzeichnis 3. Einführung / Introduction 3.1. Acute Myeloid Leukemia 3.1.1. Definition 3.1.2. Epidemiology and etiology 3.1.3. Clinical presentation 3.1.4. Diagnosis of AML 3.1.4.1. Morphology 3.1.4.2. Immunophenotyping 3.1.4.3. Cytogenetic and molecular analyses 3.1.5. AML classification according to WHO classification 3.1.6. Prognostic factors in AML 3.1.6.1. Patient-related risk factors 3.1.6.2. Genetic risk factors 3.1.6.3. Measurable residual disease 3.1.7. Treatment of AML 3.1.7.1. Induction therapy in curative intention 3.1.7.2. Consolidation therapies 3.1.7.3. Palliative treatment approaches 3.1.7.4. New substances 3.2. Allogeneic HSCT 3.2.1. Principles of allogeneic HSCT 3.2.2. Conditioning regimens 3.3. Red cell distribution width 4. Aufgabenstellung / Objectives 5. Materialien und Methoden / Materials and Methods 5.1. Patients and treatments 5.1.1. Treatment protocols 5.1.2. Allogeneic HSCT and immunosuppression 5.1.3. Assessment of GvHD 5.2. Disease characterization 5.2.1. Evaluation at AML diagnosis 5.2.1.1. Morphology 5.2.1.2. Flow cytometry 5.2.1.3. Genetic analyses 5.2.1.4. Evaluation of RDW levels 5.2.2. Evaluation at HSCT 5.2.2.1. Definition of remission status at HSCT 5.2.2.2. Evaluation of measurable residual disease at HSCT 5.3. Statistical Analyses 5.3.1. Associations 5.3.2. Clinical endpoints 5.3.3. Definition of an optimal cut-point for RDW levels 5.3.4. Multivariate analyses 6. Ergebnisse / Results 6.1. Overall outcomes of the patient cohort 6.2. RDW levels at AML diagnosis regarded as continous parameter 6.3. The role of RDW levels at diagnosis as a predictor for outcomes after allogeneic HSCT 6.4. Associations of RDW levels at diagnosis 7. Diskussion / Discussion 8. Zusammenfassung / Summary 9. Literaturverzeichnis / References 10. Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit 11. Curriculum Vitae 12. Komplette Publikationsliste (Peer-reviewed) 13. Danksagung

Les gènes ASXL (ASXL1, ASXL2 et ASXL3) sont les homologues mammifères du gène Additional sex combs (Asx) présent chez la Drosophile. En 2009, des mutations somatiques impliquant ASXL1 ont été identifiées chez ~ 10-20% des patients atteints d’hémopathies myéloïdes. Le rôle et l’implication des autres membres de la famille dans l’hématopoïèse normale et pathologique sont encore inconnus.Dans ce travail, nous avons identifié pour la 1ère fois, par séquençage haut débit, des mutations somatiques récurrentes d’ASXL2 (22,7%) chez des adultes et enfants atteints de leucémies aiguës myéloïdes (LAM) avec translocation t(8 ;21) (c.-à-d AML1-ETO (AE) ou RUNX1/RUNX1T1). Ces mutations n’ont pas été retrouvées dans d’autres sous types de LAM et sont mutuellement exclusives des mutations d’ASXL1. Le séquençage de l'ARN (RNAseq) d'échantillons de patients a révélé un profil transcriptionnel spécifique chez les patients mutés pour ASXL2. Bien que la survie globale soit similaire, les patients porteurs de mutations d’ASXL1 ou ASXL2 ont une incidence cumulative de rechute de 54,6% et 36,0% comparativement à 25% pour les patients non mutés (P = 0,226). Ces résultats, évoquant une coopération entre ASXL1/2 et AE lors de la leucémogenèse, sont importants car les t(8 ;21) sont parmi les anomalies cytogénétiques les plus fréquentes en matière de LAM. D’autre part, il est bien établi que AE nécessite la coopération d’altérations géniques supplémentaires pour induire la leucémie.Nous avons ensuite exploré le rôle d’ASXL2 dans l’hématopoïèse normale. Nous avons d’abord démontré in vitro que les mutations d’ASXL2 entrainent une diminution de son expression. Nous avons ensuite généré un modèle de souris invalidées pour Asxl2 (KO conditionnel). Par transplantations compétitive et non compétitive, nous avons montré que le KO pour Asxl2 ou Asxl1 et Asxl2 (double KO) induit une diminution et un défaut d’auto renouvellement des cellules souches hématopoïétiques (CSH) ainsi que des cytopénies, avec un phénotype plus sévère que le KO d’Asxl1 seul. L’analyse du transcriptome (par RNAseq) des CSH a révélé un nombre de gènes dérégulés par la perte d’Asxl2 25 fois plus important qu’avec Asxl1. De plus les gènes dérégulés par la perte d’Asxl2 recoupent les cibles transcriptionnelles d’AML1-ETO. Ces données suggérant qu’Asxl2 pourrait être un médiateur important de la leucémogenèse, nous avons ensuite étudié le rôle d’ASXL2 dans les LAM avec t(8 ;21). In vitro, par CHIP Seq, nous avons mis en évidence, dans des lignées t(8;21), un enrichissement des sites de liaisons à l’ADN d’ASXL2 au niveau de ceux d’AML1-ETO. De plus, en infectant ces lignées avec un shRNA dirigé contre ASXL2, nous avons étudié la marque H3K4me1 qui est augmentée de façon majeure dans le contexte leucémique. Afin de comprendre les effets in vivo d’ASXL2 dans la leucémogenèse, nous avons réalisé des greffes de cellules de moelle osseuse de souris KO infectées avec un rétrovirus pour AE9a. Ces souris développent une LAM plus rapidement que les souris contrôles AE9a lors de greffes secondaires, suggérant à nouveau un rôle spécifique d’Asxl2. Afin d’élucider le mécanisme impliqué, nous avons réalisé de l’ATAC seq sur ces souris et mis en évidence des différences importantes dans l’accessibilité de la chromatine, notamment au niveau des gènes Hoxa et Meis1.Pour la première fois, nous décrivons l’incidence des mutations d’ASXL2 dans les LAM et le rôle d’ASXL2 dans l’hématopoïèse. Nous suggèrerons un rôle spécifique dans les LAM avec t(8;21), qui pourrait être associé à des modifications de la marque d’histone H3K4me1. Ces spécificités pourraient résulter en de nouvelles options thérapeutiques chez les patients. / The ASXL family of genes (ASXL1, ASXL2, and ASXL3) are mammalian homologs of the Drosophilia Additional sex combs (Asx) gene. In 2009 somatic mutations involving ASXL1 were originally identified in ~10-20% of patients with myeloid malignancies. Despite this association, alterations in other ASXL family members and their potential function in normal or malignant hematopoiesis were unknown.We identified, by next generation sequencing, the surprising finding of highly recurrent somatic ASXL2 mutations (22.7%) in adult and pediatric acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients bearing the AML1-ETO (AE) translocation (i.e. RUNX1/RUNX1T1, t(8;21)). Interestingly these mutations were only found in patients with t(8 ;21) and mutually exclusive with ASXL1 mutations. RNA sequencing (RNAseq) of primary AE AML patient samples revealed that ASXL2-mutants form a distinct transcriptional subset of AE AML. Although overall survival was similar between ASXL1 and ASXL2 mutant t(8;21) AML patients and their wild-type counterparts, patients with ASXL1 or ASXL2 mutations had a cumulative incidence of relapse of 54.6% and 36.0%, respectively, compared with 25% in ASXL1/2 wild-type counterparts (P=0.226). These findings are of immediate biological importance as AE translocations are amongst the most common cytogenetic alterations in AML and it is well established that AE requires additional genetic alterations to induce leukemogenesis.Given the above human genetic data, we set out to perform a functional comparison of ASXL1 and ASXL2 on hematopoiesis and determine the functional basis for frequent mutations in AE AML. In vitro analyses of ASXL2 mutations revealed that these mutations resulted in substantial reduction of ASXL2 protein expression. We therefore generated Asxl2 conditional knockout (cKO) mice to delineate the effect of ASXL2 loss on hematopoiesis. Competitive and noncompetitive transplantation revealed that Asxl2 or compound Asxl1/2 loss resulted in cell-autonomous, rapid defects of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) function, self-renewal, and number with peripheral blood leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. RNA-seq of HSCs revealed twenty-fold greater differentially expressed genes in Asxl2 cKO mice relative to Asxl1 cKO mice. Interestingly, genes differentially expressed with Asxl2 loss significantly overlapped with direct transcriptional targets of AE, findings not seen in Asxl1 cKO mice.Overall, the above data suggest that Asxl2 may be a critical mediator of AE leukemogenesis. To functionally interrogate the role of ASXL2 loss in leukemogenesis we first utilized an in vitro model with RNAi-mediated depletion of ASXL2 in the SKNO1 cell line. Anti-ASXL2 and AE ChIPSeq revealed significant co-occupancy of ASXL2 with AE binding sites. Moreover, analysis of histone modification ChIP-Seq revealed an enrichment in intergenic and enhancer H3K4me1 abundance following ASXL2 loss. Next, to understand the in vivo effects of Asxl2 loss in the context of AE, we performed retroviral bone marrow (BM) transplantation assays using AE9a in Asxl2 cKO mice. In contrast to the failure of HSC function with Asxl2 deletion alone, mice reconstituted with BM cells expressing AE9a in Asxl2-deficient background had a shortened leukemia-free survival compared to Asxl2-wildtype control. Moreover, ATAC Sequencing showed an increase of chromatin occupancy with Asxl2 loss at known leukemogenic loci, including the HoxA and Meis1 loci.Overall, these data reveal that ASXL2 is required for hematopoiesis and has differing biological and transcriptional functions from ASXL1. Moreover, this work identifies ASXL2 as a novel mediator of AE transcriptional function and provides a new model of penetrant AE AML based on genetic events found in a substantial proportion of t(8;21) AML patients. Further interrogation of the enhancer alterations generated by ASXL2 loss in AE AML may highlight new therapeutic approaches for this subset of AML

Introduction: In acute myeloid leukemia (AML), leukemia initiating cells exist within the CD34+/CD38- cell compartment. They are assumed to be more resistant to chemotherapy, enriched in minimal residual disease cell populations, and responsible for relapse. Purpose: We evaluated clinical and biological associations and the prognostic impact of a high diagnostic CD34+/CD38- cell burden in AML patients receiving an allogeneic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in complete remission. Here, the therapeutic approach is mainly based on immunological graft-versus-leukemia effects. Methods: Percentage of bone marrow CD34+/CD38- cell burden in 169 AML patients at diagnosis was measured using flow cytometry. The optimal cutoff of 6% was applied and used to evaluate the impact of a high CD34+/CD38- cell burden on outcome. Results: The CD34+/CD38- cell burden and was highly variable (median 0.5%, range 0-89% of all mononuclear cells). A high CD34+/CD38- cell burden at diagnosis associated with worse genetic risk and secondary AML. Patients with a high CD34+/CD38- cell burden had shorter relapse-free and overall survival, which may be mediated by residual leukemia initiating cells in the CD34+/CD38- cell population, escaping the graft-versus-leukemia effect after allogeneic HSCT. Conclusion: Evaluating the CD34+/CD38- cell burden at diagnosis may help to identify patients at high risk of relapse after allogeneic HSCT. Further studies to understand leukemia initiating cell biology and develop targeting therapies to improve outcomes of AML patients are needed.:Bibliographische Beschreibung / Bibliographic description 1 Einleitung / Introduction 2 Epidemiology and AML diagnosis 2 Therapeutic options in AML 3 Genetic risk classification for therapeutic decisions in AML 6 Immunophenotyping in AML 10 Leukemia Initiating Cells 11 Objectives of the here presented study 13 Publikation / Publication 14 Anlage / Supplemental Material 23 Zusammenfassung / Summary 48 Weiterführende Arbeiten / Future developments GPR56 as new LIC marker 52 Referenzen / References 55 Referenz der Publikation / Reference of the publication 60 Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit 61 Curriculum Vitae 62 Komplette Publikationsliste 65 Danksagung 74

In recent years, a great effort has been deployed towards a better understanding of the molecular changes in cells and in the bone marrow (BM) environment that contribute to the development and progression of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) to acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Among others, the aberrant hematopoietic stem cells in MDS often display increase in DNA double strand breaks, genomic instability with common loss or rearrangement of chromosomes and an ineffective response to DNA damage, a phenomenon that has been linked to the onset of cellular senescence. Additionally, the BM microenvironment can become more pro-inflammatory. In our effort to better understand the contribution of the BM microenvironment on MDS progression, we analyzed the expression profiles of cytokines in the BM microenvironment in all stages of MDS/AML and found several proinflammatory cytokines that increase with disease progression. Also, by repeated sampling of patients over the course of 5-azacytidine therapy, we were able to assess the changes in the proinflammatory cytokine milieu with the progression of the disease. Additionally, we aimed to identify the candidate markers for the improvement of MDS prognosis. We focused on naturally occurring germline polymorphism of NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone 1) gene (NQO1*2)...

The value of the combination of gemtuzumab ozogamicin (GO) and chemotherapy for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is currently analyzed within clinical trials. GO (6 mg/m2) and standard-dose cytarabine (100 mg/m2) is evaluated for the treatment of newly diagnosed AML in elderly patients in the SAL phase II trial. Preliminary results of the MRC AML15 trial support the application of GO 3 mg/m2 with standard- and high-dose cytarabine and anthracyclines for the treatment of de novo AML. Within this trial the addition of GO seems especially of value for favorable and intermediate cytogenetic risk groups. The combination of GO (3 mg/m2) and high-dose cytarabine (3 g/m2) is safe and more effective for the treatment of refractory AML than previous combinations from the AMLSG study group. First results prove the possibility of allogeneic stem cell transplantation after GO therapy. Initial data of a phase II trial document the safety and efficacy profile of GO within a reduced-intensity conditioning protocol applying fludarabine and total body irradiation. / Der Stellenwert von Gemtuzumab Ozogamicin (GO) in der Kombination mit Chemotherapie für die Behandlung der akuten myeloischen Leukämie (AML) wird derzeit auch in Europa untersucht. Der Einsatz von GO (6 mg/m2) in Kombination mit Cytarabin (100 mg/m2) bei der Primärbehandlung älterer Patienten mit AML wird in der SAL-Phase-II-Studie geprüft. Das in der MRC-AML15-Studie nachgewiesene verbesserte krankheitsfreie Überleben belegt den Stellenwert von GO (3 mg/m2) in Kombination mit Standard- und hoch dosiertem Cytarabin und einem Anthrazyklin für die Induktion und Konsolidierung bei neu diagnostizierter AML. Insbesondere Patienten mit einem günstigen und intermediären zytogenetischen Risikoprofil scheinen von der Gabe von GO zu profitieren. In der Behandlung von AML-Rezidiven oder refraktärer Erkrankung erwies sich GO (3 mg/m2) als sicher mit hoch dosiertem Cytarabin (3 g/m2) kombinierbar und war in der Wirksamkeit historischen Vergleichskollektiven der AMLSG-Studiengruppe überlegen. Erste Ergebnisse dokumentieren die Möglichkeit einer allogenen Stammzelltransplantation nach GO-Therapie. Erste Daten einer laufenden Studie belegen auch die Einsatzmöglichkeit und das Sicherheitsprofil von GO als Bestandteil einer Konditionierungstherapie von reduzierter Intensität mit Fludarabin und Ganzkörperbestrahlung. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Les leucémies sont une famille de cancers issus de la prolifération maligne des cellules hématopoïétiques. La leucémie myéloïde aigüe (AML) représente 30% des leucémies chez les adultes et menace surtout les personnes âgées de 64 ans et plus. Actuellement, la chimiothérapie est la méthode principale de prise en charge de l’AML, mais celle-ci comporte des effets secondaires importants ainsi qu’un risque de récidive qui freinent son développement. Le redéploiement de molécules déjà utilisées pour d’autres maladies est une stratégie émergente dans le traitement du cancer. Par exemple, la chlorpromazine (CPZ), un antipsychotique, démontre une activité contre les lignées cellulaires issues d’AML, mais son activité au niveau du système nerveux central entraine des effets indésirables. Compte tenu de l’activité de CPZ contre les cellules leucémiques, nous avons mis au point un système de vectorisation des médicaments original pour le traitement de l’AML. La CPZ est d’abord incluse dans une cyclodextrine (CD) : molécule cage à base de glucose et ce complexe est ensuite encapsulé dans un liposome : vésicules à contenu aqueux délimitées par une ou plusieurs bicouches phospholipidiques. Ce système de “drug-in-CD-in-liposomes” (DCL) est conçu pour circuler longtemps dans le sang après injection intraveineuse mais ne pas passer la barrière hémato-encéphalique (BHE).Il a été nécessaire d’optimiser la formulation avec ses trois composants principaux : CD, CPZ et phospholipides. Ainsi, une évaluation physico-chimique approfondie a été réalisée pour les interactions CD/CPZ, CD/phospholipides et CPZ/phospholipides. La calorimétrie de titration isotherme (ITC) a permis de déterminer la stœchiométrie et la constante d’association pour les complexes d’inclusion CD/CPZ, démontrant les associations les plus importantes avec la Sugammadex ou la SBE-β-CD. La spectroscopie RMN 2D ROESY a mis en évidence des géométries d’inclusion différentes selon la taille et le type de substitution des CDs. Par ailleurs, l’inclusion de la CPZ dans les CDs accélère légèrement la photodégradation de l’antipsychotique. Quant à l’interaction CD/phospholipides, la SBE-Et-β-CD déstabilise les liposomes multilamellaires (MLVs) composés de palmitoylstearoylphosphatidylcholine (PSPC) pour des concentrations supérieures à 25 mM, tandis que les autres CDs sont sans effet. En outre, des études de turbidité ont démontré que les liposomes unilamellaires (SUV) ne sont pas perturbés en présence de la plupart des CDs. Une étude de l’interaction entre CPZ et PSPC a démontré que la quantité maximale qu’il est possible d’encapsuler était égale à 3,75 mol%. Par la suite, des DCL contenant CPZ ont été préparés par la méthode « dehydration-rehydration vesicles » (DRV) mais le pourcentage du principe actif encapsulé (EE) s’avérait faible (environ 10%). Ainsi la méthode DRV combinée à l’utilisation d’un gradient de concentration de sulfate d’ammonium a été mise en œuvre, ce qui a permis d’augmenter l’EE à 27% tout en gardant une taille compatible avec l’administration IV. Par la suite, la cytotoxicité de ces formulations a été évaluée sur 4 lignées cellulaires humaines issues d’AML (HL-60, MOLM13, MV4-11 and OCI-AML). Les liposomes contenant la CPZ ont tous démontré un effet cytotoxique tandis que les liposomes vides avaient tendance à stimuler la croissance cellulaire et les CD seules étaient sans effet. Pourtant, l’activité des DRVs avec CD était inférieure à celle des DRV/CPZ, selon l’ordre suivant : DRV-SGM/CPZ < DRV-SBE-β-CD/CPZ < DRV-HP-γ-CD/CPZ. L’activité était inversement proportionnelle à la constante d’affinité, suggérant une libération retardée. Cette hypothèse a été confortée par le fait que l’activité des DRV CD/CPZ était plus importante après une exposition de 72h qu’après 24h.Ces résultats sont prometteurs pour la mise au point de systèmes à libération contrôlée de CPZ pour le traitement d’AML. / Leukemia is a group of cancers caused by malignant clonal proliferation of hematopoietic stem cells. Accounting for 30% of all leukemias in adults, acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is especially a threat for older people with a median age of 64 years. Presently, chemotherapy is the main therapeutic method for AML but severe side-effects and possibility of relapse have hampered its development. “Repurposing” of drugs used in other diseases is a current trend for the treatment of cancer. For example, chlorpromazine (CPZ), a widely used anti-psychotic drug, shows effective activity in AML cell lines, but can also cause side effects in the central nervous system.Basing on the inhibiting capability of CPZ against leukemia-related cell lines, we have designed and developed a novel nanometric drug delivery system for AML treatment. CPZ is first entrapped in the hydrophobic internal cavity and forms inclusion complexes with cyclodextrin (CD), a cask-like molecule composed of glucose units, then the CD/CPZ inclusion complexes are encapsulated in liposomes, phospholipid vesicles consisting of a series of lipid bilayers enclosing aqueous compartments. The “drug-in-CD-in-liposomes” (DCL) system provides a promising strategy which is capable of achieving long circulation time in the blood after intravenous administration while circumventing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). It was necessary to optimize the formulation for its three main components: CD, CPZ and phospholipid. Therefore, a comprehensive physicochemical investigation of the interaction between CD/CPZ, CD/lipid and CPZ/lipid was performed. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) was used to obtain the stoichiometry and association constant of the CPZ-CD inclusion complexes, showing that sugammadex and SBE-β-CD has the highest complexation ratio. 2D ROESY NMR revealed different inclusion processes depending on the size and chemical modification of CDs. Photodegradation experiments indicated that CDs can slightly accelerate CPZ's photodegradation. As far as liposome stability was concerned, SBE-Et-β-CD was found to have an obvious interaction with palmitoyl stearoyl phosphatidylcholine (PSPC) multilamellar liposomes (MLVs) above 25 mM, while the other CDs were without effect. However, turbidity measurements indicated that small unilamellar liposomes (SUVs) remain intact in presence of CDs. A study of the interaction between CPZ and PSPC showed that the maximum proportion of CPZ that could be incorporated into the lipid membrane was 3.75 mol%. Subsequently, DCL systems containing CPZ was prepared by the dehydration-rehydration vesicles (DRV) method. However, low drug encapsulation efficiency (EE) was obtained (about 10% of added drug). Therefore, an active loading strategy, the ammonium sulphate gradient method, was used in combination with the DRV method. As a result, the EE of CPZ increased to about 27% and yielded liposomal formulations with suitable size for IV administration.Finally, the cytotoxicity of CPZ, CDs, empty liposomes and liposomes containing CD/CPZ complexes was evaluated against a panel of leukemia cell lines. CPZ was found to show a growth-inhibiting effect on the human leukemia cell lines (HL-60, MOLM13, MV4-11 and OCI-AML), while empty liposomes were observed to slightly promote their growth and CDs alone had no significant cytotoxicity. However, a difference in activity was observed with the DRV containing CD/CPZ complexes, which were less active than DRV containing free CPZ, with the order: DRV-SGM/CPZ < DRV-SBE-β-CD/CPZ < DRV-HP-γ-CD/CPZ. The activity was inversely proportional to the formation constant of CD/CPZ complexes obtained by ITC, suggesting a delayed release from the complexes. This was confirmed by varying the exposure time; the activity of DRV CD/CPZ being relatively higher in a longer incubation.These results suggest that the DCL system could provide controlled release of CPZ for the treatment of AML.

No description available.

Adoptive immunotherapy using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells targeting CD19 has shown remarkable therapeutic efficacy against B cell leukemia and lymphoma, and provided proof of concept for therapeutic potential in other hematologic malignancies. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is an entity with an unmet medical need for effective and curative treatments. Therefore, there is a strong desire for development of potentially curative CAR-T cell immunotherapy for AML treatment. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3) is a homodimeric transmembrane protein expressed uniformly by AML blasts. FLT3 plays a vital role in the survival of AML blasts and is a key driver of leukemia-genesis in AML cases with internal tandem duplication (FLT3ITD) and tyrosine kinase domain (TKD) mutations. These attributes suggest that FLT3 could be an excellent target for CAR-T cell immunotherapy. Here, we engineered human CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to express FLT3-specific CARs and demonstrate that they confer potent reactivity against AML cell lines and primary AML blasts that express either wild-type FLT3 or FLT3-ITD. Further, we show that FLT3 CAR-T cells exert potent antileukemia activity in xenograft models of AML and induce complete remissions. We also demonstrate that FLT3-expression on FLT3-ITD+ AML cells can be augmented by FLT3 inhibitors, which lead to increased recognition by CARs and improved efficacy of FLT3 CAR-T cells. We confirmed this principle with three different FLT3 inhibitors which are at distinct stages of clinical development i.e. Phase II/III clinical trial (crenolanib, quizartinib) and clinically approved (midostaurin). Further, we observed the strongest anti-leukemia activity of FLT3 CAR-T cells in combination with crenolanib in vivo. FLT3 is known to be expressed by normal hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. We evaluated FLT3-expression on normal hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) using flow cytometry and confirmed lower level of FLT3-expression on HSCs and progenitors compared to AML cells. As anticipated, we found that FLT3 CAR-T cells recognize normal HSCs in vitro and in vivo, and compromise normal hematopoiesis, suggesting that adoptive therapy with FLT3 CAR-T cells will require successive CAR-T cell depletion and allogeneic HSC transplantation (HSCT) to reconstitute the hematopoietic system. Moreover, an FLT3 inhibitor treatment does not increase FLT3-expression on HSCs. Accordingly, we demonstrate that the depletion of FLT3 CAR-T cells is possible with inducible Caspase 9 (iCasp9) safety switch. Collectively, our data establish FLT3 as a novel CAR target in AML with particular relevance in high-risk FLT3-ITD+ AML. Our data demonstrate that FLT3 CAR-T cells act synergistically with FLT3 inhibitors in FLT3-ITD+ AML. i.e. FLT3 inhibitors-induced upregulation of FLT3 in FLT3-ITD+ AML cells enhances their recognition and elimination by FLT3 CAR-T cells. Due to recognition of normal HSCs, the clinical use of FLT3 CART cells is likely restricted to a defined therapeutic window and must be followed by CART cell depletion and allogeneic HSCT for hematopoietic reconstitution. The data provide rational to use FLT3 CAR-T cells in combination with FLT3 inhibitors to augment the anti-leukemia efficacy of FLT3 CAR-T cells in high-risk FLT3-ITD+ AML patients, and to mitigate the risk of relapse with FLT3-negative AML variants, which could otherwise develop under therapeutic pressure. The data provide proof of concept for synergistic use of CAR-T cell immunotherapy and small molecule targeted therapy and encourage the clinical evaluation of this combination treatment in high-risk patients with FLT3-ITD+ AML. / Adoptive Immuntherapie, die Chimäre- Antigenrezeptor (CAR) –modifizierte, gegen CD19 gerichtet T-Zellen verwendet, hat eine bemerkenswerte therapeutische Wirksamkeit gegen B-Zell-Leukämien und -Lymphome und großes therapeutisches Potenzial für die Behandlung anderer hämatologischer Erkrankungen gezeigt. Die Akute Myeloische Leukämie (AML) ist hierbei eine Entität, für die es bisher an wirksamen und kurativen Therapien fehlt und für die die Entwicklung einer potentiell kurativen CAR-T-Zellimmuntherapie von großer Bedeutung ist. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3) ist ein homodimeres Transmembranprotein, das von AML-Blasten uniform exprimiert wird. FLT3 spielt eine wichtige Rolle beim Überleben von AML-Blasten und ist ein Schlüsselfaktor in der Leukämie-Genese bei AML-Fällen mit interner Tandem-Duplikation (FLT3-ITD) und Tyrosinkinase-Domänen (TKD)-Mutationen. Diese Eigenschaften legen die Vermutung nahe, dass FLT3 ein ausgezeichnetes Target für die CAR-T-Zell-Immuntherapie darstellen könnte. Daher setzten wir dort an und modifizierten humane CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen, um FLT3-spezifische CARs zu exprimieren, und konnten nachweisen, dass diese eine starke Reaktivität gegen AML-Zelllinien und primäre AML-Blasten besitzen, die entweder den FLT3-Wildtyp oder FLT3-ITD exprimieren. Weiterhin konnten wir zeigen, dass FLT3 CAR-T-Zellen in AML-Xenograft-Modellen eine starke anti-Leukämie-Aktivität besitzen und vollständige Remissionen hervorrufen können. Zudem gelang der Nachweis, dass die FLT3-Expression auf FLT3-ITD+ AML-Zellen durch FLT3-Inhibitoren verstärkt werden kann, was zu einer erhöhten Erkennung durch die CARs und einer verbesserten Wirksamkeit von FLT3-CAR-T-Zellen führt. Wir konnten dieses Prinzip mit drei verschiedenen FLT3-Inhibitoren belegen, die sich in unterschiedlichen Stadien der klinischen Entwicklung befinden, d. h. aus einer Klinischen Phase II / III-Studie (Crenolanib, Quizartinib) und einem klinisch zugelassenen Inhibitor (Midostaurin). Darüber hinaus beobachteten wir die stärkste anti-Leukämie-Aktivität von FLT3 CAR-T-Zellen in einer Kombination mit Crenolanib in vivo. Es ist bekannt, dass FLT3 von normalen hämatopoetischen Stamm- und Vorläuferzellen exprimiert wird. Wir untersuchten die FLT3-Expression in normalen hämatopoetischen Stammzellen (HSCs) mittels Durchflusszytometrie und bestätigten im Vergleich zu AML-Zellen eine niedrigere FLT3-Expression auf HSCs und Vorläuferzellen. Wie erwartet, zeigte sich, dass FLT3 CAR-T-Zellen normale HSCs in vitro und in vivo erkennen und die normale Hämatopoese beeinträchtigen, was darauf hindeutet, dass eine adoptive Therapie mit FLT3 CAR-T-Zellen eine sukzessive CAR-T-Zell-Depletion und allogene HSC-Transplantation erfordert, um das hämatopoetische System wiederaufzubauen. Darüber hinaus erhöht die Behandlung mit einem FLT3-Inhibitor nicht die FLT3-Expression auf den HSCs. Dementsprechend konnten wir aufzeigen, dass die Depletion von FLT3 CAR-T Zellen mit einer induzierbaren Caspase 9 (iCasp9) als „Sicherheitsschalter“ möglich ist. Zusammenfassend etablieren unsere Daten FLT3 als ein neuartiges CAR-Target in der Behandlung von AML mit besonderer Relevanz für die Hochrisiko-FLT3-ITD+ AML. Unsere Daten zeigen, dass FLT3 CAR-T-Zellen synergistisch mit FLT3-Inhibitoren in FLT3-ITD+ AML wirken, d.h. eine FLT3-Inhibitoren-induzierte Hochregulation von FLT3 in FLT3-ITD+ AML-Zellen bewirkt und dies die Erkennung und Eliminierung durch FLT3-CAR-T-Zellen verstärkt. Durch ihre Eigenschaft der Erkennung von normalen HSCs ist die klinische Verwendung von FLT3 CAR-T-Zellen wahrscheinlich auf ein definiertes therapeutisches Fenster beschränkt und muss durch eine anschließende CAR-T-Zell-Depletion und eine allogene HSCT zur Rekonstitution des hämatopoetischen Systems ergänzt werden. In Anbetracht der Daten scheint es sinnvoll, FLT3-CAR-T-Zellen in Kombination mit FLT3-Inhibitoren zu verwenden, um die anti-leukämische Wirksamkeit von FLT3-CAR-T-Zellen bei Hochrisiko-FLT3-ITD+ AML-Patienten zu erhöhen und das Risiko eines Rückfalls mit FLT3-negativen AML-Varianten zu verringern, die sich sonst therapiebedingt entwickeln könnten. Die Daten stellen ein Proof-of-Concept für den synergistischen Einsatz von CAR-T-Zell-Immuntherapie und niedermolekularen Inhibitoren dar, der eine klinische Evaluation dieser Kombinationsbehandlung bei Hochrisikopatienten mit FLT3-ITD+ AML erstrebenswert macht.

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