Obesity is a public health concern and cardiometabolic consequences are severe when obesity develops during youth and continues into adulthood. Treatment prior to adulthood confers health benefits, but adolescent obesity rates have continually increased, reaching 20.6% in 2013-2014. Quality and quantity of dietary intake contribute to the development of obesity, but limitations of self-reported dietary intake are evident in overweight or obese adolescents, who frequently misreport nutrients of concern. Added sugar, sodium, and protein intake may indicate diet quality in this population. The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines recommend decreasing consumption of added sugars, sodium, and processed protein due to their known contributions to overweight and obesity. Objective dietary intake assessment measures are necessary for investigating the association between dietary intake and health outcomes. Added sugar, sodium, and protein intake could be assessed objectively with a panel of urinary biomarkers. Prior research indicates the potential of these urinary biomarkers to reflect dietary intake, but to date, no controlled feeding study has been conducted in adolescents. Using a controlled feeding design, the current study aims to evaluate the validity of urinary sucrose, fructose, sodium, and nitrogen as objective indicators of dietary intake. It is hypothesized that urinary sucrose and fructose will reflect dietary added sugar intake, while urinary sodium and nitrogen will correspond to dietary sodium and protein intake, respectively, in a healthy adolescent population. These biomarkers, if valid, could be used in clinical and epidemiological research to improve understanding of the associations between dietary intake and health outcomes. / Master of Science / An increasing percentage of adolescents are becoming overweight or obese as a result of lifestyle changes that have decreased physical activity and increased access to foods with more calories and less nutrients. Overweight or obese adolescents are typically less heatlhy than their normal weight peers, and they are more likely to become overweight or obese adults, increasing the liklihood that they will develop diabetes and heart disease. It is important to prevent adolescents from becoming overweight or obese to preserve their health, and to treat adolescents who are overweight or obese to improve their health. Eating certain foods in excess contributes to negative health outcomes, including increased weight gain, so dietary change is an important aspect of overweight and obesity prevention and treatment. Current dietary guidelines recommend eating less added sugars, sodium, and processed protein. Quantifying dietary intake of these food components is essential for fully understanding their impact on health. However, self-reporting food intake is a flawed measure, because individuals may not accurately report all of the foods they consume. An objective method is needed to determine dietary intake of specific food components. Fortunately, urinary biomarkers can objectively assess dietary intake of added sugar, sodium, and protein. Controlling consumption of each food component and measuring urinary excretion of each biomarker is necessary to establish how intake corresponds to excretion, but this type of study has not been conducted in adolescents. The current study aims to use a controlled feeding approach to establish relationships between dietary intake of added sugars, sodium, and protein, and urinary excretion of sucrose/fructose, sodium, and nitrogen, in an adolescent population. These biomarkers could be used in future research to advance understanding of the relationships between food intake and overall health.

This dissertation presents a quantitative study of the effects of multiple aspects of working conditions on teacher effectiveness as measured by value-added scores and student perceptions of teaching. The data were derived from the 2009-2010 Teacher Working Condition Survey and Student Perception Survey in Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) Project. Using the structural equation modeling and other related methods, several models of teacher effectiveness were estimated. The results supported that instruction and classroom related working conditions at school played important role in effective teaching and student achievement gains in English language arts and mathematics. It was found that, after controlling for teachers' education degree and experience, instructional practice support had significant effect on teachers' value-added scores. Moreover, Classroom autonomy and support for student conduct management were found to have indirect effect on teacher value-added score mediated through the students' perceptions of teaching. In addition, student perceptions of teaching was found to be significantly worse in high-need schools than schools serving fewer minority students or students from low-incoming families, but teacher value-added score was not significantly different between the high versus low needs schools. The findings of the study significantly contributed to a better understanding of the effects of working environment and how these are related to teacher performance. The study has both theoretical and practical significance; it provided critical evidence that can be used by policy makers to promote teachers' performance, especially in high-needs schools. / Ph. D.

The prevalence of children and adolescents who are considered overweight or obese has grown drastically in the United States. Childhood overweight and obesity is associated with serious long-term health consequences, including an increased risk for cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, strokes, and different types of cancers. Added sugar intake (AS), in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB), may contribute to weight gain and obesity development in children and adolescents. Due to the negative health implications of SSB consumption, a valid and reliable brief beverage intake assessment tool is needed for children and adolescents to advance research in this area. The BEVQ-15 food frequency questionnaire has been validated as a tool to assess habitual beverage intake in adults. By validating this tool in youth, there will be a rapid, feasibly administered method to assess beverage intake in children and adolescents. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the comparative validity and test-retest reliability of the BEVQ-15 for assessing usual beverage intake in children and adolescents. Participants (n=326) completed four laboratory sessions, which included providing demographic information, assessment of height/weight, and four record-assisted 24 hour dietary recalls (24HR) from January 2014-September 2015. The BEVQ was completed at 2 sessions (BEVQ1, BEVQ2). Validity was assessed by comparing beverage intake from dietary recalls (24HR) to the BEVQ1; reliability was assessed by comparing BEVQ responses at two sessions (BEVQ1, BEVQ2). Data analysis included descriptive statistics, paired sample t-tests, independent sample t-tests, and chi-squared test, and one-way ANOVA tests. Comparisons of validity and reliability were also made within two subsets; children (aged 6-11) and adolescents (aged 12-18). In the full sample, self-reported water and total sugar-sweetened beverage intake (in fl oz and kcal) were not different between BEVQ1 and 24HR. Responses between BEVQ1 and BEVQ2 were not different in intake (fl oz) or energy (kcal) for water, milk, and total sugar-sweetened beverages. In children, milk and energy (kcal) for total beverages were not different between BEVQ1 and 24HR. No differences were reported between BEVQ1 and BEVQ2 across beverage categories. In adolescents, water and energy (kcal) for total-sugar sweetened beverages were not different between BEVQ1 and 24HR. No differences were reported between BEVQ1 and BEVQ2 with the exception of sweetened juice drinks and total beverages. Overall, these results demonstrate that the BEVQ-15 appears to be a valid and reliable tool to assess habitual water and total SSB intake in children and adolescents. This tool could further epidemiological and clinical research examining the impact of SSB intake, as well as intake of other beverages, on health. / Master of Science

The U.S. hardwood industry has traditionally depended on the domestic demand to sustain levels of production above 14 billion board feet per year. Because of the collapse of the U.S. housing market in 2009 and the economic recession that followed, the industry moved its sight to the international markets, as an opportunity to replace some lost demand, and pursue long term growth. Previous research on international marketing of hardwood products indicates that, there is a growing concern among U.S. companies to understand the main competitiveness factors in key markets such as Asia and Europe. Finding opportunities to add value to U.S. hardwood exports has been the goal of this research project. A case study and survey research were carried out among importers and exporters, whereby it was found that aspects related to price, quality and service, are critical in achieving competitive advantage. This motivated a study in demand and pricing management, which found that these tasks may be subject to innovation through optimization approaches. / Ph. D.

As the federal deficit rises in the United States, interest in a consumption tax system or the value added tax (VAT) also increases. This investigation attempts to determine the short-run impacts of a value added tax upon private forest management. A literature review investigates the theoretical economic impacts of a VAT and experience with the tax in other countries. Then supply and demand functions in both the southern pine sawtimber stumpage and new single-facility housing sector are empirically derived. These functions are used to determine the short-run housing price elasticities of the quantity of houses sold and the price and quantity of stumpage sold. From this, the impact of a VAT-induced housing price change is determined, and simulation with different VAT rates are performed. Based on housing markets alone, it is found that a VAT is likely to cause a short-run reduction in sawtimber stumpage price and quantity demanded which is less than 1/10 percent of the VAT rate. / M.S.

The aim of this study was to examine how manure-derived value-added products via anaerobic digestion impact the environment and economics of dairy farming. An on-farm anaerobic digester (AD) at Virginia dairy was used in this study. The AD performance evaluated for: (i) biogas production (ii) waste stabilization; and (iii) production of organic fertilizer. Locally available organic waste streams were evaluated for co-digestion with dairy manure to increase biomethane production at the on-farm AD. The effective pasteurization temperature and duration to reduce fecal coliform, E. coli, and Salmonella concentrations in the AD effluent to acceptable levels for use as an organic fertilizer were determined. A partial environmental and economic analysis was conducted on the AD system to determine its effects on the environmental-economic sustainability of dairy farming. The results showed that the manure-derived value-added products from the AD improved environmental health and had the potential to improve the economic sustainability of the dairy farm. The AD stabilized the manure adequately and produced 400 KW of electricity, enough to power 230 US homes. Blending manure with locally available organic materials increased volatile fatty acid production, suggesting the potential to increase biomethane yields. Pasteurization at 70°C is sufficient to reduce pathogen indicating organisms to acceptable levels for the manure to be used as an organic fertilizer. The payback periods range from 4.6 to 11.8 years for the AD investment costs and reductions in direct manure methane emissions of 2,436 tonnes CO2e per year. / Master of Science

Background: Family physicians are central care providers for older adults. Some family physicians have enhanced skills to care for this patient population, sometimes reflected in a focused medical practice and/or extra training. There are knowledge gaps concerning how to identify physicians with focused practice or added training within health administrative data, as well as understanding their contributions to quality primary care. Research Question: This thesis investigated: (1) What are appropriate and important performance measures of family physician services that are relevant to older adults? (2) How can family physicians with focused practice or added training be classified within population-based health administrative data, and what are their medical practice characteristics? (3) How do family physicians with/without focused practice or added competence compare in delivering high quality care to older patients? Methods: This thesis comprised a modified Delphi consensus study and two population-based observational studies. Expert panelists rated indicators and refined proposed technical definitions for endorsed indicators. Using health administrative data, family physicians with focused medical practices and/or added competence were classified, and their practice- and provider-level characteristics were described. A propensity score-matched cohort study enabled comparisons of family physicians on the consensus-based performance measures. Results: This thesis established consensus on 12 measurable processes across four priority topics relevant to added competency training. An approach to classify family physicians with focused practice or added training was developed, and practice differences were identified. Lastly, this work operationalized the technical definitions of performance measures and identified distinctions on four processes. Conclusion: This thesis provides novel data on the family physician workforce with focused medical practices and added competence to care for older adults. The studies demonstrated the feasibility of establishing measurable indicators using a modified Delphi procedure, and developed an approach to classify focused practice physicians and added competency holders within health administrative data. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Older adults frequently seek care from family doctors for a variety of health needs. Some family doctors focus their medical practice to increasingly care for older patients or undergo extra training to learn more about their needs. There is a research gap in understanding if added focus or training impacts the care that older adults receive. This thesis studied family doctors with focused medical practices and extra training to see how they compare with other family doctors. Experienced physicians and researchers were consulted to determine what primary care activities related to caring for older patients are most important and appropriate to measure. Findings showed some practice differences between family doctors who focus on older patients or have extra training, but the quality of care that older adults receive is similar. This research suggests that added focus and training might not lead to better quality of primary care for older patients.

The aim of this research was to investigate the effect of taxes on household consumption using panel data from 94 countries from 1997―2020. These countries are grouped into 64 high―and 30 low―income countries. This study employed the generalised method of moment estimation. The results were based on estimation regressions and sensitivity analyses indicating that taxes negatively affect household consumption. Furthermore, taxes were found to be more effective at limiting household consumption in high―income countries. In conclusion, this study supports findings that were previously reported in literature. Policy makers should limit the distortive nature of taxes on household consumption by periodically assessing and controlling tax rates.

An estimated 20.5% of adolescents ages 12 – 19 years were obese (≥95th percentile of BMI-for-age) in 2011 – 2014. Consumption of added sugars (AS) has been linked with adverse effects on weight and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Approximately 16% of adolescents’ calories come from AS, of which sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) are a major contributor. However, the relationship between AS/SSB intake and obesity is controversial, partly due to limitations in self-reported dietary data. Objective dietary intake biomarkers may circumvent this problem. The δ13C biomarker for AS intake is based upon the fact that C4 plants– major source for sugar production in the United States – have elevated δ¹³C values compared to C3 plants, which includes most fruits and vegetables. The δ¹³C value of blood, which is influenced by diet, has been established as a valid, reliable, and sensitive biomarker, but when compared to selfreported AS intake. This investigation evaluated the sensitivity and reliability of the δ13C biomarker, assessed with fingerstick blood samples, in adolescents using a controlled feeding, crossover design. Fingerstick δ¹³C values significantly changed by -0.05‰ and +0.03‰ after subjects completed the 5% and 25% AS diets, respectively (F(1, 30) = 18.828, p < 0.001). High reliability was found between two consecutive fingerstick δ¹³C values on the low (ICC = 0.996) and high (ICC = 0.997) AS diets. Thus, fingerstick δ¹³C may be a sensitive and reliable indicator of AS intake in adolescents. Future investigations should develop an equation to estimate AS intake based on fingerstick δ¹³C / Master of Science / Approximately one-fifth of adolescents 12 – 19 years old were obese in 2011 – 2014. A diet high in added sugars (AS), which are sugars that do not naturally occur in a food product, is associated with increased weight and higher risk for cardiovascular, or heart, disease. About 16% of adolescents’ calories come from AS, and a major source of AS intake is sugary beverages. Because people tend to inaccurately report what they eat and drink, researchers are interested in biomarkers to objectively estimate dietary intake. The δ¹³C biomarker measures carbon isotope ratios. Since most of the sugar produced in the United States comes from corn, sugarcane, and sorghum – which have a higher δ ¹³C content compared to most fruits and vegetables – δ ¹³C could indicate AS intake. Studies have reported that the δ ¹³C value of whole blood, which is influenced by diet, is valid, reliable, and sensitive, but when compared to self-reported AS intake. This investigation evaluated the sensitivity and reliability of whole blood δ ¹³C, sample using fingersticks, in adolescents consuming controlled diets so that AS intake was known. Fingerstick δ ¹³C values significantly changed after subjects completed the low and high AS diets (<i>F</i>(1, 30) = 18.828, <i>p</i> < 0.001). High reliability was found between two consecutive fingerstick δ ¹³C values on the low (ICC = 0.996) and high (ICC = 0.997) AS diets. Thus, fingerstick δ ¹³C may be a sensitive, reliable indicator of AS intake in adolescents. Future studies should develop an equation to estimate AS intake based on fingerstick δ ¹³C.

Syfte: Syftet med studien är att genom en flerfallsstudie analysera och söka förståelse för sambanden mellan prissättningsstrategier och prissättningsmetoder som tillämpas hos företag som riktar sin verksamhet främst mot andra företag, B2B. Analysen av empirin sker med hjälp av redan existerande teorier om prisstrategier och prissättningsmetoder. Trots studiens fokus på ett visst företag inom en viss bransch är ändå förhoppningen att studiens slutsatser ska kunna vara av intresse för B2B-företag med samma kostnadsstrukturer. Metod: Ramen för studien utgörs av en deduktiv ansats med kvalitativ undersökningsdesign. Företagen i studien har studerats genom en flerfallsstudie med semistrukturerade intervjuer som metod för att insamla data. Teoretisk referensram: Uppsatsens teoretiska del innefattar teorier från företagsekonomisk forskning som förklarar vanliga prisstrategier, prissättningsmetoder och dess funktioner. Begreppen Price Waterfall och Strategic Fit har behandlats för att i analysen kunna se hur väl företagens övriga aktiviteter integrerar med prissättningsprocessen. Slutsats: Målet med denna studie är att besvara frågeställningen: Vilka samband finns det mellan prissättningsstrategier och prissättningsmetoder inom B2B-fötetag? Resultatet visar att det finns tydliga samband på flera områden. Det finns flera slutsatser att dra av denna studie, men den viktigaste slutsatsen är: För att vinstmaximera sina prisstrategier måste man hitta samband med flera olika prissättningsmetoder och arbeta med dessa på ett aktivt sätt i hela organisationen / Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to analyze and seek knowledge about the connection between pricing strategy and pricing methods in B2B companies. The analysis was conducted with help from already exciting theory about pricing strategy and pricing methods. Even though the study is conducted on a small amount of companies in a special branch, the ambition is that this thesis could be of interest for B2B-companies with the same structures of cost. Method: The thesis uses a deductive and qualitative approach. The data is collected from a case study conducted through semi-structured interviews. Theoretical framework: The base of the theoretical approach is a number of theories from business and specialist literature that have explained common pricing strategy and pricing methods. The concept of Price Waterfall and Strategic Fit is used to analyze how the companies’ activities integrate with the pricing process. Conclusion: The purpose of this study is to answer the question: What is the relationship between pricing strategies and pricing practices in B2B companies? The result shows that there are clear links in several areas. There are several conclusions to draw from this study, but the main conclusion is that to maximize profits the pricing strategies must be associated with several different pricing methods and work with them in an active way in the whole organization