<p>U radu, metodom PAGE (poliakrilamid gel elektroforeze), analizirana je gensko-enzimska<br />varijabilnost 11 populacija vrsta ruficornis grupe: M. ruficornis, M. armipes, M. crymensis, M. loewi i M.<br />recurvus; 11 populacija vrsta aeneus grupe: M. aeneus: M. aeneus A, M. aeneus B, M. aeneus C, M.<br />cinereus A, M. cinereus B, M. funestus i M. desuturinus; 7 populacija avidus grupe (M. avidus A i M.<br />avidus B) roda Merodon i 4 populacije vrste Cheilosia vernalis sa teritorije Balkanskog poluostrva.<br />Analizirana je varijabilnost alozima determinisanih alelima 17 lokusa (Aat, Fum, Gpd-1, Gpd-2, Gpi, Had,<br />Hk-2, Hk-3, Idh-1, Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm, Sod-1, Sod-2, Sod-3) vrsta ruficornis grupe, 15 lokusa<br />(Aat, Fum, Gpd-2, Gpi, Had, Hk-2, Hk-3, Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm, Sod-1, Sod-2, Sod-3) aeneus<br />grupe, 16 lokusa (Aat, Ao, Fum, Gpd-2, Gpi, Had, Hk-2, Hk-3, Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm, Sod-1,<br />Sod-2, Sod-3) avidus grupe i 12 lokusa (Fum, Gpd-2, Gpi, Had, Hk-2, Hk-3, Idh-1, Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-2,<br />Pgm, Sod-1) populacija vrste Ch. vernalis.<br />Populaciono-genetičkom analizom vrsta ruficornis grupe utvrđen je dijagnostički značaj Aat,<br />Fum, Had, Hk-2, Hk-3, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm i Sod-1 lokusa. Species-specifičnim alelima identifikovane su<br />vrste i formiran genetičko-biohemijski dihotomi ključ. Analizom alozimske varijabilnosti populacija vrsta<br />aeneus grupe registrovani su kriptični taksoni: M. aeneus A, M. aeneus B, M. aeneus C, M. cinereus A i<br />M. cinereus B. U simpatričkim i alohronim populacijama vrsta M. aeneus A i M. aeneus C registrovani su<br />dijagnostički Had, Sod-1, Me, Aat i Pgm lokusi. Analizom PGM zimograma, u okviru prethodno<br />definisane &quot;prolećne generacije&quot; determinisana je populacija sa Kopaonika taksona M. aeneus B aeneus<br />kompleksa. Determinacija kriptičnih taksona M. cinereus A i M. cinereus B izvr&scaron;ena je na osnovu speciesspecifičnih<br />genotipova Had lokusa. Najveći broj dijagnostičkih lokusa registrovan je između vrsta M.<br />desuturinus i M. funestus, kao i između navedenih vrsta i ostalih vrsta aeneus kompleksa. Utvrđen je i<br />dijagnostički značaj većine analiziranih lokusa: Aat, Fum, Gpd-2, Hk-2, Hk-3, Idh-2, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm i<br />Sod-1. Na osnovu genetičkih markera Aat i Idh-2 lokusa i dijagnostičkih morfolo&scaron;kih karaktera<br />identifikovane su sestrinske vrste M. avidus A i M. avidus B.<br />Stepen genetičke diferencijacije između vrsta u okviru ruficornis i aeneus grupa bio je veći u<br />odnosu na blisko srodne vrste aeneus i cinereus kompleksa i sestrinskih vrsta avidus grupe. Na genetičku<br />identičnost ukazuje 52,94% (ruficornis grupa) i 55,56% (aeneus grupa) vrednosti genetičke bliskosti po<br />lokusu, odnosno, potpuna genetička različitost registrovana je u 25,41% (ruficornis grupa) i 25,49%<br />(aeneus grupa) analiza.<br />Na osnovu prosečne genetičke bliskosti i klaster analize u okviru ruficornis grupe diferencirana je<br />grupa blisko srodnih vrsta M. armipes, M. ruficornis i M. recurvus u odnosu na genetički udaljene vrste,<br />M. crymensis i M. loewi. Dendrogramom genetičkih odnosa između vrsta aeneus grupe formirana je<br />monofiletska grupa vrsta aeneus i cinereus kompleksa, nasuprot genetički udaljenim vrstama M. funestus i<br />M. desuturinus.<br />Utvrđena je veća zastupljenost vrednosti genetičke bliskosti po lokusu, mere genetičke<br />identičnosti (37,44%) i manji procenat pokazatelja genetičke različitosti (47,80%) između vrsta aeneus i<br />avidus grupa u odnosu na vrste ruficornis i avidus grupe (29,84% i 58,09%). Na visok stepen genetičkih<br />razlika između kongeneričkih vrsta roda Merodon ukazuje najveća procentualna zastupljenost vrednosti<br />genetičke bliskosti po lokusu, pokazatelja genetičke različitosti (62,01%) i mali stepen genetičke<br />identičnosti (26,84%).<br />Utvrđen je pleziomorfan karakter Gpi (Gpijl), Hk-2, Hk-3 (Hkc) i Mdh-2 (Mdh-2e) lokusa vrsta<br />ruficornis, aeneus i avidus grupa roda Merodon, kao i predački aleli Gpii, Gpij, i Pgmf vrsta avidus i<br />aeneus grupa. Poređenjem alozima determinisanih alelima 10 lokusa populacija vrste Cheilosia vernalis,<br />suprageneričke out vrste, i populacija vrsta roda Merodon, registrovani su identični aleli samo u Fum i<br />Pgm lokusima.</p> / <p>Gene-enzyme variability of the ruficornis (11 populations: M. ruficornis, M. armipes, M.<br />crymensis, M. loewi and M. recurvus), aeneus (11 populations: M. aeneus: M. aeneus A, M. aeneus B, M.<br />aeneus C, M. cinereus A, M. cinereus B, M. funestus and M. desuturinus) and avidus (7 populations: M.<br />avidus A and M. avidus B) groups of species of the genus Merodon and four Cheilosia vernalis<br />populations from the Balkan peninsula was analyzed using PAGE (polyacrilamide electrophoresis).<br />Allozyme variability of 17 loci in the ruficornis species group (Aat, Fum, Gpd-1, Gpd-2, Gpi, Had, Hk-2,<br />Hk-3, Idh-1, Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm, Sod-1, Sod-2, Sod-3), 17 loci in the aeneus species group<br />(Aat, Fum, Gpd-2, Gpi, Had, Hk-2, Hk-3, Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm, Sod-1, Sod-2, Sod-3), 16 loci in<br />the avidus species group (Aat, Ao, Fum, Gpd-2, Gpi, Had, Hk-2, Hk-3, Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm,<br />Sod-1, Sod-2, Sod-3) and 12 loci in Ch. vernalis populations (Fum, Gpd-2, Gpi, Had, Hk-2, Hk-3, Idh-1,<br />Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Pgm, Sod-1) was evaluated.<br />Diagnostic value of Aat, Fum, Had, Hk-2, Hk-3, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm and Sod-1 loci was determined<br />by the population-genetic analysis of the ruficornis species group. The species were identified using<br />species-specific alleles and genetic-biochemical key was formed. Allozyme variability analysis of the<br />aeneus species group populations enabled discrimination of the cryptic taxa: M. aeneus A, M. aeneus B,<br />M. aeneus C, M. cinereus A and M. cinereus B. In sympatric and alochronic populations of the species M.<br />aeneus A and M. aeneus diagnostic loci were observed (Had, Sod-1, Me, Aat and Pgm). Analysis of the<br />PGM zymogram allowed the identification of the cryptic species M. aeneus B in the previously delineated<br />&quot;spring generation&quot; from Kopaonik. Cryptic taxa M. cinereus A and M. cinereus B were discriminated<br />based on the species-specific genotypes at the Had locus. The largest numbers of the diagnostic loci were<br />registered for differentiating M. desuturinus and M. funestus species, and between these two and other<br />species of the aeneus complex. Diagnostic value was recorded for the analyzed loci: Aat, Fum, Gpd-2, Hk-<br />2, Hk-3, Idh-2, Mdh-2, Me, Pgm and Sod-1. Sibling species M. avidus A and M. avidus B were identified<br />using genetic markers of Aat and Idh-2 loci and diagnostic morphological characters.<br />The degree of genetic differentiation between the species of the ruficornis and the aeneus groups<br />was higher comparing to closely related species of the aeneus and the cinereus complexes and sibling<br />species of the avidus group. Out of the performed analyses, 52.94% (ruficornis group) and 55.56%<br />(aeneus group) of the genetic identity values for loci point to genetic identity, while complete genetic<br />difference was registered in 25.41% (ruficornis group) and 25.49% (aeneus group).<br />Average values of the genetic identity and cluster analysis enabled differentiating the groups of<br />closely related (M. armipes, M. ruficornis and M. recurvus) and genetically distant species (M. crymensis<br />and M. loewi) in the ruficornis group. Based on dendrogram of genetic relationships between the species<br />of the aeneus group, monophyletic group of the aeneus and the cinereus complex species was formed, as<br />opposed to genetically distant species M. funestus and M. desuturinus.<br />Genetic identity among loci between the aeneus and the avidus groups was higher (37.44%) while<br />genetic distance was lower (47.80%) in comparison to the corresponding values for the ruficornis and the<br />avidus groups of species (29.84% and 58.09%). High values of genetic difference (62.01%) and low<br />values of genetic identity (26.84%) indicate great genetic difference between congeneric species of the<br />genus Merodon.<br />Pleziomorphous character of Gpi (Gpijl), Hk-2, Hk-3 (Hkc) and Mdh-2 (Mdh-2e) loci in the<br />ruficornis, aeneus and avidus species groups of the genus Merodon and ancestral alleles (Gpii, Gpij, Pgmf<br />) in the avidus and the aeneus species groups were registered.<br />Comparison of allozymes of the suprageneric out species Ch. vernalis and the populations of the<br />genus Merodon revealed identical alleles only in Fum and Pgm loci.</p>

The genetic structure of oyster drill Thais clavigera along the west coast of Taiwan were assayed by starch gel electrophoresis. Factors of locality¡]i.e. Shainsan, Taisi, Budai, Chiku¡^,maturity¡]i.e. mature, immature¡^ and sampling time¡]i.e.1999.7~2000.3, 2000.11¡^ were analyzed to evaluate their effect on drill¡¥s genetic structure . Four of the eleven investigated enzyme loci were polymorphic , i.e. Ark, Lap-1, Lap-2, and Pgm-1. Among the four populations , the mean heterozygosity¡]H¡^and genetic distances¡]D¡^ ranged from 0.100 to 0.129 and from 0.0005 to 0.0029, respectively. Therefore, T. clavigera along the west coast of Taiwan belongs to the same population. However, differentiation among populations still existed which was contributed by Ark locus. According to the degree of differentiation, the four populations were ranked as Shainsan¡BBudai¡BTaisi and Chiku . A similar trend was also observed in the four populations, as the drill size increased, the mean heterozygosity and the heterozygosity of Ark locus increased. Sampling time had no significant effect on genetic structure of populations. It is suggested that environmental factors¡]e.g. environmental quality and topography¡^and drill¡¦s reproductive ecology may be important in determining the genetic structure of populations.

The cosmopolitan Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn is widespread throughout eastern North American, where it is represented primarily by Tryon's (1941) var. latiusculum (Desv.) Underw. and var. pseudocaudatum (Clute) Heller. The taxonomy of Pteridium is controversial. Fourteen isozyme loci and 12 morphological characters were used to assess the taxonomic relationship of these two varieties. Isozyme data indicated a high mean genetic identity (I = 0.976) between eleven bracken populations. Strong patterns of geographic variation for isozyme allele frequencies were also observed. The isozyme results did not separate the two taxa. Numerical analysis of the morphology distinguished the two taxa when the qualitative characters were used alone or in conjunction with some of the quantitative traits. All qualitative characters differed significantly between the two taxa. No perceptible geographic pattern of variation was observed. Morphological distinctiveness was maintained even in those localities where both taxa were present, with few or no intermediates being found. Isozyme evidence suggestive of gene flow between the two varieties was found at Greensboro, NC, where the two morphotypes were easily recognizable. The isozyme evidence strongly indicates conspecificity, while the morphological evidence supports their status at the varietal level. / Master of Science

Thesis (M.Sc. ( Physiology )) --University of Limpopo, 2011 / Refer to document / the National Research Foundation

In an earlier project completed in our laboratory a seasonal fluctuation in Phosphoglucomutase (PGM) phenotype frequencies was found, so that the winter bees were almost all heterozygotes and long lived than the summer bees among which homozygotes were significantly at high frequencies at Pgm locus. Same results were obtained in populations of three subspecies, A. m. meda, A. m. caucasica, and A. m. carnica from different climatic regions. In the current study environmental cues related with seasonal change in PGM phenotype frequency was examined along with the correlation between PGM heterozygosity and overwintering success. Cessation of food influx was found to be effective by itself as an environmental cue that causes a sudden and sharp increase in PGM heterozygosity. In addition to that, PGM heterozygosity of the colonies with greater overwintering success was found to be significantly higher than the ones with intermediate or low overwintering success. Benefiting from the previous studies and the results of current study, ethyl oleate was suggested as a chemical signal that functions in the regulation of PGM heterozygosity.

Genes are the foundation of evolution and biodiversity. The genetic structure of natural populations needs to be understood to maintain exploited resources rationally. This thesis focuses on genetic variability and methods to determine spatial and temporal genetic heterogeneities. Intense human exploitation generates particular challenges to conserve genetic diversity of fishes since it has genetic effects. My research concerns one of our most valuable fish species: the Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus). I analyzed Atlantic herring samples from the North and Baltic Seas. The objectives were to determine: 1) spatial genetic structure, 2) whether allozymes and microsatellites provide similar descriptions of the differentiation pattern, or 3) if they are influenced by selection, 4) factors affecting statistical power when testing for genetic differentiation, and 5) the temporal stability of the genetic structure. The results show: 1) very low levels of spatial genetic differentiation in Atlantic herring; a major component is a difference between the Baltic and North Seas, 2) a concordant pattern with allozymes and microsatellites, 3) that selection influences a microsatellite locus, which can be a low salinity adaptation, 4) that statistical power is substantial for frequently used sample sizes and markers; the difference in power between organelle and nuclear loci is partly dependent on the populations’ stage of divergence, and 5) no changes in amount of genetic variation or spatial genetic structure over a 24-year period; the selection pattern in one microsatellite locus remained. The notion that the large population sizes make herring unlikely to lose genetic diversity may be disputed. I found small local effective population sizes, and the evidence of selection hints of a distinct evolutionary lineage in the Baltic. When Atlantic herring is managed as very large units, there can be detrimental genetic effects if certain population segments are excessively harvested.

Abstract Adaptation through polygenic selection is a prominent feature in nature. Still, the genetic backgrounds of polygenic adaptations are often unknown. The challenges of resolving adaptive processes are related to selection being distributed over several loci with often small effect sizes. Also, even a low level of population substructure can obstruct the inference. Further, demographic factors in the history of the species, such as population size changes and range expansions leave a confounding footprint in the background genomic variation. In this thesis, polygenic adaptation was studied with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), a widespread ecologically and economically important conifer. In this thesis, timing of bud set – an adaptive polygenic trait – was studied at the level of the phenotype in a common garden study, and at the genomic level by examining the sequence and allele frequency variation patterns in bud set timing related loci, with a sampling across a latitudinal transect in Europe. An association study, combining these two levels, was carried out with a new Bayesian multipopulation method. The congruence of allozyme and nucleotide level diversity was estimated, the level of neutral genetic population structure surveyed, and a demographic background model for statistical inference of selective signals redefined. Allozyme variation seemed to correlate well with the nucleotide level variation at the between species level, but within population, at the individual allozyme coding loci, does not describe the underlying level of nucleotide variation well. Indications of recent colonization history affecting the level of differentiation between populations were seen, and the need to control for the background effects of simultaneous range expansion and adaptation shown. Lower phenotypic and additive genetic variation in timing of bud set was found in northern compared to central European populations. Signs of heterogeneity in genetic basis of this trait were also found between these areas, which could indicate different timekeeping mechanisms due to different environmental cues in the two regions. The results in this thesis are of value to the study of adaptation, but also for breeding, conservation and prediction of responses of forest trees to future climate change. / Tiivistelmä Sopeutuminen perustuu usein polygeenisiin ominaisuuksiin. Näiden ominaisuuksien geneettiset taustat ovat silti vielä pitkälti selvittämättä. Sopeutumisominaisuuksien genetiikan selvittämistä vaikeuttaa valinnan vaikutusten jakautuminen usean, usein pienivaikutuksisen lokuksen kesken. Lisäksi vähäinenkin populaatiorakenne hankaloittaa geenien tunnistamista. Myös lajin historiassa tapahtuneet demografiset muutokset, kuten populaatiokoon vaihtelut ja kolonisaatio jättävät jälkensä genomiin. Väitöskirjassani tutkin polygeenistä sopeutumista ekologisesti ja taloudellisesti tärkeän havupuulajin, metsämännyn (Pinus sylvestris L.) avulla. Väitöskirjassani tutkin metsämännyn silmunmuodostuksen ajoitusta sekä fenotyypin että sekvenssimuuntelun tasolla. Ajoitusta mitattiin eri leveysasteilta peräisin olevista eurooppalaisista populaatioista yhteiskasvatuskokeessa, ja sekvenssimuuntelua sekä alleelifrekvenssien jakautumista tutkittiin vastaavasta näytteestä. Geenikartoituskokeessa yhdistettiin nämä kaksi muuntelun tasoa hyödyntäen uutta, usean populaation tutkimiseen soveltuvaa analyysimenetelmää. Lisäksi tutkin allotsyymimuuntelun ja nukleotidimuuntelun keskinäistä tarkkuutta geneettisen diversiteetin kuvaajina, neutraalin populaatiorakenteen tasoa, sekä demografian vaikutusta metsämännyn genomissa. Allotsyymimuuntelun todettiin kuvaavan hyvin lajien välisiä diversiteettieroja. Populaation sisällä yksittäisten allotsyymien heterosygotia ei korreloinut entsyymiä koodaavan geenin muuntelun määrän kanssa. Pohjoisten populaatioiden vähäisemmät keskinäiset erot verrattuna keskieurooppalaisiin antoivat viitteitä siitä, että viimeisimmän jääkauden jälkeiset kolonisaatiotapahtumat voivat edelleen vaikuttaa populaatioiden erilaistumisasteeseen. Assosiaatiotutkimuksessa osoitettiin, kuinka tärkeää yhtäaikaisen sopeutumisen ja kolonisaation huomioiminen on sopeutumisominaisuuksien tutkimisessa. Fenotyyppinen muuntelu silmunmuodostuksen ajoituksessa oli vähäisempää pohjoisissa populaatioissa. Lisäksi löysimme merkkejä geneettisestä heterogeenisuudesta silmunmuodostuksen taustalla pohjoisten ja keskieurooppalaisten metsämäntyjen välillä, mikä voi johtua vuodenajan vaihtelun mittaamiseen käytettävien ympäristösignaalien eriytymisestä näiden alueiden välillä. Väitöskirjassani saadut tulokset hyödyttävät paitsi sopeutumistutkimusta, myös jalostus- ja luonnonsuojelututkimusta sekä ilmastonmuutoksen vaikutusten arviointia.

<p>Sagledavanje ukupnog genetičkog i fenotipskog diverziteta i evolucionog potencijala vrste E. tenax izvr&scaron;eno je analizom jedinki poreklom sa 42 područja Evrope, Australije, Severne i Južne Amerike i laboratorijske kolonije iz &Scaron;panije. Analiza intraspecijske varijabilnosti vrste E. tenax izvr&scaron;ena je kvantifikovanjem varijacija u veličini i obliku krila 1653 jedinke i obojenosti abdomena 936 jedinki. Analiza genetičkog diverziteta na nivou polimorfizma nukleotidnih sekvenci mtDNK je izvr&scaron;ena kod 58 jedinki, dok je analiza alozimske varijabilnosti obuhvatila 821 jedinku prirodnih populacija i laboratorijske kolonije vrste E. tenax. Rezultati su ukazali da inbriding i stohastički procesi utiču na redukciju genetičkog diverziteta i da &ldquo;oslobađaju&rdquo; skrivenu genetičku varijabilnost koja je povezana sa fenotipskom diferencijacijom. Vremenska distribucija fenotipskog diverziteta vrste E. tenax je kvantifikovana analizom jedinki četiri alohrona uzorka poreklom sa lokaliteta Venac, Fru&scaron;ka gora. Mali stepen genetičke i fenotipske diferencijacije između durmitorskih uzoraka vrste E. tenax ukazuje na odsustvo prostorne substruktuiranosti i njihovu međusobnu povezanost intenzivnim protokom gena. Analiza konspecifičkih populacija vrsta E. tenax ukazala je na odsustvo jasne međupopulacione diferencijacije na osnovu parametrara krila i molekularnih markera (alozimski lokusi i COI mtDNK), te se može zaključiti da postoji intenzivan protok gena koji elimini&scaron;e razlike između populacija. Registrovan je polni dimorfizam u veličini i obliku krila i obojenosti abdomena. Uočeno je da mužjaci u proseku imaju manja i uža krila i svetlije obojene abdomene od ženki. Analizom fenotipske diferencijacije u karakterima abdomena na uzorcima vrste E. tenax sakupljenim duž geografskog gradijenta Evrope je utvrđeno odsustvo promena po tipu kline. Dobijeni rezultati omogućavaju preciznije sagledavanje intra- i interpopulacione varijabilnosti ovog takona i ukazuju da vrsta E. tenax ima visok evolucioni potencijal za adaptacije na sredinske promene</p> / <p>This paper examines molecular and phenotypic variability in the widely spread hoverfly species Eristalis tenax. We compared 42 samples from Europe, Australia North and South America, with the aim of obtaining insights into the temporal and spatial variations and sexual dimorphism in the species. Additionally, wild specimens from Spain were compared with a laboratory colony reared on artificial media. The integrative approach was based on allozyme loci, cytochrome c oxidase I mitochondrial DNA, morphometric wing parameters (shape and size) and abdominal colour patterns. Our results indicate that the fourth and eighth generations of the laboratory colony show a severe lack of genetic diversity compared to the figures observed in natural populations. Reduced genetic diversity in subsequent generations of the laboratory colony was found to be linked with phenotypic divergence. The distribution of genetic diversity at polymorphic loci indicated genetic divergence among collection dates from Fru&scaron;ka Gora Mt, and landmark-based geometric morphometrics revealed significant wing shape variation throughout the year. Phenotypic differentiation in abdominal pattern of the E. tenax populations along latitudinal gradient Europe has not been established. Consistent sexual dimorphism was observed, indicating that male specimens had lighter abdomens and smaller and narrower wings than females. It is reasonable to assume high mobility of the dronefly and high rate of gene flow reflected the similarity of genetic and phenotypic diversity of otherwise geographically distinct populations. Hence, the present study expands our knowledge of the genetic diversity and phenotypic variability of E. tenax. The quantification of such variability represents a step towards the evaluation of the adaptive potential of this species of medical and epidemiological importance.</p>

No description available.