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The Amazon rain forest plays an important role in regional and global biogeochemical cycling, but the region may undergo an increase in the frequency and severity of drought conditions driven by global climate change, regional deforestation and fire. The effects of this drought on carbon cycling in the Amazon, particularly below-ground, are potentially large but remain poorly understood. This thesis examines the impacts of seasonal and longer-term drought upon ecosystem carbon allocation and cycling at an Amazon rain forest site with a particular focus upon below-ground processes. Measurements are made at three one-hectare forest plots with contrasting soil type and vegetation structure, to observe responses across a range of Amazon primary forest types. A fourth plot is subjected to partial rainfall exclusion to permit measurement of forest responses to a wider range of soil moisture levels than currently exists naturally. An analysis of the number of samples required to accurately quantify important ecosystem carbon stocks and fluxes is used to guide the sampling strategy at the field site. Quantifying root dynamics, in particular, presents methodological challenges. Thus, I critically review existing methods, and develop techniques to accurately measure root standing biomass and production. Subsequently, these techniques are used to record root responses, in terms of standing biomass, production, morphology, turnover and nutrient content, to variation in soil moisture across the four rain forest plots. There is substantial environmental variation in root characteristics. However, several responses remain consistent across plots: root production of biomass, length, and surface area, is lower where soil is dry, while root length and surface area per unit mass show the opposite pattern. The other major component of the below-ground carbon cycle is soil carbon dioxide efflux. I partition this efflux, on each plot, into contributions from organic ground surface litter, roots and soil organic matter, and investigate abiotic and biotic causes for observed differences within and between plots. On average, the percentage contribution of soil organic matter respiration to total soil carbon dioxide efflux declines during the dry season, while root respiration contribution displays the opposite trend. However, spatial patterns in soil respiration are not directly attributable to variation in either soil moisture or temperature. Instead, ground surface organic litter mass and root mass account for 44 % of observed spatial heterogeneity in soil carbon dioxide efflux. Finally, information on below-ground carbon cycling is combined with aboveround data, of canopy dynamics and stem wood production and mortality, to analyze the potential effects of drought upon carbon cycling in an Amazon forest ecosystem. Comparison of the rainfall exclusion plot with a similar, but unmodified, control plot reveals potentially important differences in tree carbon allocation, mortality, reproduction, soil respiration and root dynamics. The apparent net consequence of these changes is that, under drier conditions, the amount of CO2 moving out of the forest and into the atmosphere is diminished. This synthesis of above-ground and below-ground data advances understanding of carbon cycling in rain forests, and provides information which should allow more accurate modelling of the response of the Amazon region to future drought. Additional measurements at other sites, and of other ecosystem carbon fluxes, should further refine modelling predictions.

A Floresta Amazônica, o maior bioma brasileiro, é caracterizado pela ampla diversidade e heterogeneidade de seus ecossistemas. Os solos amazônicos, em geral, abrigam elevada diversidade microbiana que desempenha papeis importantes na ciclagem de nutrientes, mediante a decomposição da matéria orgânica. Dentre os micro-organismos, os fungos se destacam como os principais agentes envolvidos na biodegradação. Esses micro-organismos produzem um coquetel de enzimas do complexo celulolítico que são de grande importância biotecnológica. Desse modo, diante da importância econômica dos fungos, o presente trabalho propôs, acessar fungo do gênero Trichoderma, obtidos de solos da Floresta Amazônica, na busca por linhagens com alto potencial celulolítico. Assim, a partir de amostras de solos coletados em doze pontos da floresta foram obtidos 151 isolados de Trichoderma spp. O sequenciamento do gene que codifica para o de elongação da transcrição alfa-1, evidenciou a prevalência de sete espécies de Trichoderma. Do total de isolados, as mais abundantes foram: Trichoderma spirale (37%), Trichoderma strigosum (22%), Trichoderma harzianum (18%) e Trichoderma asperellum (17%). As linhagens foram submetidas a triagem para atividade celulolítica. Duas linhagens, T. harzianum AMS 23.14 e T. harzianum AMS 29.14 apresentaram atividade enzimática superior ao padrão, T. reesei RUT C-30 e foram submetidas a avaliação da atividade enzimática em diferentes condições de cultivos (bagaço de cana-deaçúcar tratado e não tratado, em dois pHs: 3 e 5). Foi observado atividade superior das linhagens amazônicas para as três enzimas estudadas (endoglucanase, exoglucanase e β-glicosidase), quando comparadas à linhagem padrão utilizada. A atividade enzimática foi positivamente influenciada pelo pH ácido, assim como pelo substrato não tratado. A partir destes resultados é notório que as linhagens isoladas desse bioma possuem grande potencial de atividade celulolítica, e que estudos mais aprofundados podem proporcionar o futuro emprego desses fungos em diversas áreas industriais. / The Amazon Rain Forest, the largest Brazilian biome, is characterized by the wide diversity and heterogeneity of its ecosystems. Amazonian soils, in general, harbor high microbial diversity that plays important roles in the cycling of nutrients, through the decomposition of organic matter. Among the microorganisms, fungi stand out as biodegradation agents. These microorganisms produce cellulolytic enzymes that are of great economic and biotechnological importance. The present work proposed to access the fungal population of the genus Trichoderma, isolated from Amazonian Forest soils, in the search for lineages with high potential of cellulolytic activity. Twelve soil samples were collected, resulting in the isolation of 151 strains of Trichoderma spp. Gene sequencing of the alpha-1 transcription elongation factor region with the EF1 and TEFR primers evidenced the prevalence of seven Trichoderma species. Of the total isolates, Trichoderma spirale (37%), Trichoderma strigosum (22%), Trichoderma harzianum (18%) and Trichoderma asperellum (17%) were the most abundant. The strains were screened for qualitative cellulolytic activity in solid medium and quantitative in liquid medium. Two strains, T. harzianum AMS 23.14 and T. harzianum AMS 29.14 showed enzymatic activity superior to T. reesei RUT C-30, and were sent to the evaluation of the enzymatic activity in different conditions (sugarcane bagasse treated and untreated, in two pHs: 3 and 5). Superior activity of the Amazonian strains was observed for the three enzymes studied (endoglucanase, exoglucanase and β-glucosidase) when compared to the T. reesei RUT C-30 standard. The enzymatic activity was positively influenced by pH 3, as well as by the untreated substrate. From these results, it is well known that isolated strains of the Amazonian environment have a great potential for cellulolytic activity, and that further studies may provide the future employment of these strains in several areas of industry.

A Floresta Amazônica, o maior bioma brasileiro, é caracterizado pela ampla diversidade e heterogeneidade de seus ecossistemas. Os solos amazônicos, em geral, abrigam elevada diversidade microbiana que desempenha papeis importantes na ciclagem de nutrientes, mediante a decomposição da matéria orgânica. Dentre os micro-organismos, os fungos se destacam como os principais agentes envolvidos na biodegradação. Esses micro-organismos produzem um coquetel de enzimas do complexo celulolítico que são de grande importância biotecnológica. Desse modo, diante da importância econômica dos fungos, o presente trabalho propôs, acessar fungo do gênero Trichoderma, obtidos de solos da Floresta Amazônica, na busca por linhagens com alto potencial celulolítico. Assim, a partir de amostras de solos coletados em doze pontos da floresta foram obtidos 151 isolados de Trichoderma spp. O sequenciamento do gene que codifica para o de elongação da transcrição alfa-1, evidenciou a prevalência de sete espécies de Trichoderma. Do total de isolados, as mais abundantes foram: Trichoderma spirale (37%), Trichoderma strigosum (22%), Trichoderma harzianum (18%) e Trichoderma asperellum (17%). As linhagens foram submetidas a triagem para atividade celulolítica. Duas linhagens, T. harzianum AMS 23.14 e T. harzianum AMS 29.14 apresentaram atividade enzimática superior ao padrão, T. reesei RUT C-30 e foram submetidas a avaliação da atividade enzimática em diferentes condições de cultivos (bagaço de cana-deaçúcar tratado e não tratado, em dois pHs: 3 e 5). Foi observado atividade superior das linhagens amazônicas para as três enzimas estudadas (endoglucanase, exoglucanase e β-glicosidase), quando comparadas à linhagem padrão utilizada. A atividade enzimática foi positivamente influenciada pelo pH ácido, assim como pelo substrato não tratado. A partir destes resultados é notório que as linhagens isoladas desse bioma possuem grande potencial de atividade celulolítica, e que estudos mais aprofundados podem proporcionar o futuro emprego desses fungos em diversas áreas industriais. / The Amazon Rain Forest, the largest Brazilian biome, is characterized by the wide diversity and heterogeneity of its ecosystems. Amazonian soils, in general, harbor high microbial diversity that plays important roles in the cycling of nutrients, through the decomposition of organic matter. Among the microorganisms, fungi stand out as biodegradation agents. These microorganisms produce cellulolytic enzymes that are of great economic and biotechnological importance. The present work proposed to access the fungal population of the genus Trichoderma, isolated from Amazonian Forest soils, in the search for lineages with high potential of cellulolytic activity. Twelve soil samples were collected, resulting in the isolation of 151 strains of Trichoderma spp. Gene sequencing of the alpha-1 transcription elongation factor region with the EF1 and TEFR primers evidenced the prevalence of seven Trichoderma species. Of the total isolates, Trichoderma spirale (37%), Trichoderma strigosum (22%), Trichoderma harzianum (18%) and Trichoderma asperellum (17%) were the most abundant. The strains were screened for qualitative cellulolytic activity in solid medium and quantitative in liquid medium. Two strains, T. harzianum AMS 23.14 and T. harzianum AMS 29.14 showed enzymatic activity superior to T. reesei RUT C-30, and were sent to the evaluation of the enzymatic activity in different conditions (sugarcane bagasse treated and untreated, in two pHs: 3 and 5). Superior activity of the Amazonian strains was observed for the three enzymes studied (endoglucanase, exoglucanase and β-glucosidase) when compared to the T. reesei RUT C-30 standard. The enzymatic activity was positively influenced by pH 3, as well as by the untreated substrate. From these results, it is well known that isolated strains of the Amazonian environment have a great potential for cellulolytic activity, and that further studies may provide the future employment of these strains in several areas of industry.

Au cours des années 80, le gouvernement colombien a rendu le Predio Putumayo à ses habitants ancestraux, les Gens du Centre, donnant ainsi naissance à la réserve indienne la plus grande de la Colombie. Cet acte décisif marque la fin d‘une longue dispute entre les indiens, les entreprises extractives et les institutions de l‘Etat. Il a été alors interprété comme une véritable révolution dans les représentations traditionnelles de la citoyenneté. Toutefois, si l‘on observe avec attention ce processus de reconnaissance politique et territoriale, on s‘apercevra qu‘une autre réalité émerge simultanément: la migration d‘une centaine de femmes indiennes vers les villes du pays ; un chemin sans retour depuis leurs petites villages vers la métropole inconnue. Cette expérience pionnière constitue la base d‘un solide réseau migratoire qui s‘étend aujourd‘hui à la plus part de villes colombiennes. Pourquoi sont-elles parties de leur territoire alors qu‘elles profitaient –au moins formellement- d‘une autonomie politique et culturelle ? Leur décision migratoire a-t-elle signifié le rejet de la "différence généralisée" proclamée par le discours multiculturel ? Le projet migratoire de celles et ceux qui sont partis dans ce premier moment est-il différent de celui des hommes et des femmes qui partent aujourd‘hui ? Ce travail de recherche tente de répondre à ces questions en reconstruisant d‘abord les processus de mobilité des Gens du Centre à Leticia et Bogotá au long des 30 dernières années. Il analyse ensuite les différentes stratégies d‘insertion urbaine des migrants indiens dans le contexte du multiculturalisme comme mode de gestion privilégié entre cette population et les sociétés d‘origine et de réception. / During the years 80, Colombian government returns the Predio Putumayo to its early inhabitants, The People of the Center, giving form to the biggest indigenous reservation of the country. This crucial act was not only the end of a long dispute between the indigenous people, the extractive enterprises and the state. It was also interpreted as a revolution in the traditional citizenship representations. However, if we look carefully to this process of territorial and politic recognition we will notice a simultaneous reality: the migration of hundreds of women to the cities of the country. This was a non-return trip from the little towns of the rain-forest‘s rivers to the unknown national cities. The experience of these pioneers‘ women built the bases of a solid migration network that today spreads out to the main cities of Colombia. Why did they leave their territory now that she counted –at least formally- with a political and cultural autonomy? Was their migratory decision a renunciation to the ―generalized difference‖ proclaimed by the multicultural discourse? The migrations project of those who left their region in that first time is it similar from the one of those who leaves today? This dissertation tries to answer to these questions through a reconstruction of the migration processes of The People of the Center to Leticia and Bogotá during the last 30 years. Then, it analyses the different strategies of migrant‘s urban insertion in the context of multiculturalism as the privileged administration mode between the indigenous people and the societies of departure and destination.