While climate change mitigation has been on the agenda of spatial planning practitioners for over two decades, adaptation has only become influential in spatial planning practice in recent years. This trend is evident not only at the municipal levelbut also at the regional and national levels. The revised planning and building law from 2011 states that municipalities must consider climate change. In parallel, a body of research focusing on the relationship between gender and concern for environmental and climate change and arguing that women are more concerned and proactive with respect to environmental issues has emerged. However, this research has been criticized for being essentialist and for stigmatizing women and men. The long-term aim of the present dissertation is to contribute to knowledge on how a gender perspective on municipal spatial planning can contribute to efficient and well-informed climate change response, as well as on how a gender perspective, as an analytical framework, can be developed to analyze, on the one hand, spatial planning related to climate change and, on the other, spatial planning more generally. One of the main contributions of my dissertation is to demonstrate that, by including a gender perspective in municipal climate change response, aspects that may be important for achieving efficient and well-informed spatial planning related to climate change response that are not typically prioritized can be afforded prominent places on the agenda. In this dissertation, I refer to these aspects as feminine values and perspectives—or attributes. I also contribute to the development of an analytical framework that can be used by policy makers and scientists to assess how a gender perspective is and can be integrated within municipal spatial planning processes related to climate change response, as well as spatial planning more generally. Furthermore, in addition to the development of efficient and well-informed responses, a dimension of gender equality must be considered. My dissertation contributes to the understanding that planners who adopt a gender perspective must consider the general level of gender equality in a country. Although the primary objective of this dissertation is to contribute to the development of efficient and well-informed policy, issues of equality and democracy cannot be overlooked. As I argue in my dissertation, participatory approaches to spatial planning are imperative for municipal efforts related to climate change. Nonetheless, participatory approaches require spatial planners to ensure that democracy and equality, on the one hand, and efficient and well-informed policy delivery, on the other, do not conflict. / <p>QC 20140214</p>

Abbasi, S., M.Sc., University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, September 2013. Adaptation to Drought in Saskatchewan Rural Communities: A Case study of Kindersley and Maidstone, Saskatchewan. Joint Supervisors: S. Kulshreshtha and E. Wheaton The main aim of this thesis is to gain knowledge of the processes of adaptation that have enabled communities and agricultural producers to function in a relatively dry and drought prone region of Saskatchewan. This investigation was limited to two rural communities – Kindersley and Maidstone. Historically, vulnerability to natural hazards has been considered only a physical phenomenon. As a result, the social characteristic of a place\system, which contribute to vulnerability to natural hazards, are not well studied. This study used both secondary (quantitative in nature) and primary (qualitative in nature) methods to understand exposure, sensitivity and adaption to droughts in two study communities. Quantitative method included estimating drought condition from time series data for both communities. Intensity of the drought was based on Palmer Drought Severity index and Standard Precipitation Index. Given this background, qualitative techniques (semi-structured interviews and participation observations) were employed to explore the sensitivity and adaptation to droughts in the two communities. The results indicated that drought had caused significant economic hardships for farmers and ranchers during the 2001- 2003 period. Crop yield declined more than 50% of normal level for some crops during this period. Producers had undertaken some adaptive actions to counteract the adverse effect of the drought. These included changing their farming practices -- intensive tillage to minimum or zero tillage, diversification in terms of types of crops grown, off-farm employment, and participation in business risk management programs. Respondents reported that drought was not the sole cause of their vulnerability. Social factors such as changing government policies, reduced profit margins, insufficient business risk management programs, and international markets shaped their vulnerability to climate-related natural hazards. The study found a strong sense of alienation between respondents and federal government agencies. The combination of economic stress, inadequate government risk management programming translates into a very narrow window of sustainability for producers should they face a severe multi-year drought in the future.

Why do countries tax the same fuels at widely different rates, even among similarly situated countries in the global political economy? Given the potentially destabilizing effects of climate change, and the political and economic risks associated with a reliance on geographically concentrated, finite fossil fuels, International Organizations and economists of all political stripes have consistently called for increasing tax rates on fossil-based energy. Despite much enthusiasm among policy experts, however, politicians concerned with distributional consequences, economic performance and competitiveness impacts continue to be wary of raising taxes on carbon-based fuels. In this context, this thesis investigates the political economy of tax rates affecting the price of fossil fuels in advanced capitalist democracies. Through an examination of the political limits of government capacity to implement stricter carbon-energy policy, as well as the identification of the correlates of higher carbon-based energy taxes, it throws new light on the conditions under which carbon-energy tax reform becomes politically possible. Based on recent data collected from the OECD, EEA and IEA, I develop an estimate of the relative size of implicit carbon taxes across OECD member countries on six carbon-based fuels and across the household and industrial sectors. I exploit large cross-national differences in these carbon-energy tax rates in order to identify the correlates of, and constraints on, carbon-energy tax reform. Applying multiple regression analysis to both cross-section and time-series cross-sectional (TSCS) data, this thesis leverages considerable empirical evidence to demonstrate how and why electoral systems matter for energy and environmental tax policy outcomes. In particular, I find considerable empirical evidence to support the claim that systems of proportional representation (PR), in addition to the partisan preferences of the electorate, work together to explain differential rates of carbon-energy taxation. By opening up the ideological space to a broader spectrum of “green” parties, I argue that PR systems create a favourable institutional context within which higher rates of carbon-energy taxation become politically possible. After specifying a key causal mechanism within different types of electoral systems – the seat-vote elasticity – I argue further that, voters in disproportional systems actually have more leverage over politicians, and that an increase in environmental voting can have an impact on rates of carbon energy taxation, even in the absence of PR. While the accession to power of green political parties in PR systems is more likely to lead to higher rates of carbon energy taxation, voting for green parties in highly disproportional systems creates incentives for other parties to adopt “green” policies, leading to a similar outcome. In this way, the effect of green votes and green seats will have the opposite effect on policy according to the type of electoral system in use.

Why do countries tax the same fuels at widely different rates, even among similarly situated countries in the global political economy? Given the potentially destabilizing effects of climate change, and the political and economic risks associated with a reliance on geographically concentrated, finite fossil fuels, International Organizations and economists of all political stripes have consistently called for increasing tax rates on fossil-based energy. Despite much enthusiasm among policy experts, however, politicians concerned with distributional consequences, economic performance and competitiveness impacts continue to be wary of raising taxes on carbon-based fuels. In this context, this thesis investigates the political economy of tax rates affecting the price of fossil fuels in advanced capitalist democracies. Through an examination of the political limits of government capacity to implement stricter carbon-energy policy, as well as the identification of the correlates of higher carbon-based energy taxes, it throws new light on the conditions under which carbon-energy tax reform becomes politically possible. Based on recent data collected from the OECD, EEA and IEA, I develop an estimate of the relative size of implicit carbon taxes across OECD member countries on six carbon-based fuels and across the household and industrial sectors. I exploit large cross-national differences in these carbon-energy tax rates in order to identify the correlates of, and constraints on, carbon-energy tax reform. Applying multiple regression analysis to both cross-section and time-series cross-sectional (TSCS) data, this thesis leverages considerable empirical evidence to demonstrate how and why electoral systems matter for energy and environmental tax policy outcomes. In particular, I find considerable empirical evidence to support the claim that systems of proportional representation (PR), in addition to the partisan preferences of the electorate, work together to explain differential rates of carbon-energy taxation. By opening up the ideological space to a broader spectrum of “green” parties, I argue that PR systems create a favourable institutional context within which higher rates of carbon-energy taxation become politically possible. After specifying a key causal mechanism within different types of electoral systems – the seat-vote elasticity – I argue further that, voters in disproportional systems actually have more leverage over politicians, and that an increase in environmental voting can have an impact on rates of carbon energy taxation, even in the absence of PR. While the accession to power of green political parties in PR systems is more likely to lead to higher rates of carbon energy taxation, voting for green parties in highly disproportional systems creates incentives for other parties to adopt “green” policies, leading to a similar outcome. In this way, the effect of green votes and green seats will have the opposite effect on policy according to the type of electoral system in use.

Snow Albedo Feedback (SAF) in response to climate change is a process that can amplify the climate warming response to increases in anthropogenic atmospheric CO2 concentrations from the 20th to the 21st Century. Warmer surface air temperature may induce snowmelt and expose darker underlying surfaces which absorb more incoming solar radiation and further increase the ambient temperature. Springtime SAF in the fully Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) models is associated with summertime circulation. However, no clear physical mechanism explaining this link has been found. Furthermore, there is a large intermodel spread in the projection of SAF among the CMIP3 models which is primarily controlled through the parameterization of snow albedo in each model. Limited work was conducted on assessing the response of SAF to that of an isolated controlling parameter such as snow albedo. Here, the uncoupled Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Atmospheric Model 2.1 (AM2.1) was used to diagnose SAF in the CMIP3 models by conducting a set of sensitivity experiments with perturbed snow albedo. This was performed to remove indirect external climate factors that may influence SAF and to use the simplified uncoupled model to understand the behaviours exhibited by the complex coupled models. Snow cover extent (SNC) and snow metamorphosis as a function of temperature (TEM) that influences SAF, as well as the knock-on effects of SAF on soil moisture, snow mass, snow melt and circulation were analyzed using both the CMIP3 and AM2.1 models. In addition, it was hypothesized that summertime Land Sea Contrast response to climate change (dLSC) is a physical mechanism that induces summertime circulation patterns in relation to springtime SAF. It is found that the AM2.1 can similarly reproduce SNC and TEM as well as the spread in SAF exhibited in the CMIP3 models. However, no robust link can be determined between SAF and its knock-on effects. Furthermore, the correlation between SAF and dLSC is not significant and thus dLSC is not a physical mechanism that influences the summertime circulation patterns in response to climate change. It is the expectation that these research results can provide an in-depth understanding of the role of SAF among fully coupled GCMs through tests performed by the uncoupled simulation.

<p> The overall structure of this research is an autoethnographic journey from the depths of deep space into the underworld of the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice while considering the depth psychological implications of co-mingling electronic computer-mediated virtual realities and our human-sensed biological reality. In so doing, the effect of screens, the psychological tempo and consumption of imagery, is considered from a phenomenological viewpoint. Proliferating computational devices, with their emphasis upon increasing speed and acceleration, are viewed as connectors as well as psychic retreats. The research examines the contrasts between the electronic virtual construct and our vital lived surround of oxygen and water while considering the legacy and effects of these machines upon our perception of an increasingly degraded environmental circumstance. The research suggests that through an <i>intentional</i> physical and psychological slowing it is possible to reconnect with the elemental rarities of earth and through that sensitivity there opens a possible pathway of re-enchantment and environmental stewardship of the earth as a life. The research presents an alternative scenario of an electronically blinkered and tethered cyborgized people burrowing further into a virtual world until the earth, utilizing its nuanced language of wind, heat, and storm, demands that they look up from their machines and pay attention to the anomalies in their lived surround. The research indicates that the choice is clear but far from sure.</p><p> Key words: Phenomenology, auto-ethnographic, myth, computers, cyborg, psychological acceleration, eco-psych, environment, slowed perception, psychic retreat, stewardship, re-enchantment.</p>

Adaptation is now recognized as an important aspect of responses to climate change. Rural communities in the prairie provinces of Canada are considered to be sensitive to the impacts of climate change due to socio-economic and geographical factors. This study examines the ways in which governance institutions shape the ability of two rural communities in Alberta to adapt. 32 semi-structured interviews were done with decision-makers in the communities of High Level and Canmore, and with provincial-level governance actors. A vast array of secondary documents was also examined. The comparison of these two case studies shows that institutional capacity in Canmore supports proactive adaptation. In contrast, several features of governance institutions in High Level detract from adaptive capacity. Provincial governance institutions were found to contribute both positively and negatively to the capacity of rural communities to adapt to climate change. / Rural Sociology

Coastal storm surges from hurricanes are one of the most costly natural disasters in the United States (US). Current research arguably indicates a mean sea-level (MSL) increase due to global warming, as well as an increase in damages caused by hurricanes under climate change. The objectives of this research are: 1) to develop a framework that integrates Geographical Information Systems (GIS) with hurricane storm surge numerical models; 2) to quantify the uncertainty derived from coastal land cover spatial data on hurricane storm surge; and 3) to investigate the potential impacts of SLR changes on land cover to hurricane storm surge and coastal damages. Numerical analysis is an important tool for predicting and simulating storm surges for coastal structure design, planning and disaster mitigation. Here we proposed a framework to integrate Geographical Information Systems (GIS) with computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models used to simulate hurricane storm surge. The geodatamodel "Arc StormSurge" is designed to store geospatial information for hurricane storm surge modeling and GIS tools are designed to integrate the high performance computing (HPC) input and output files to GIS; pre-process geospatial data and post-process model results, thereby, streamlining the delineation of coastal flood maps. Georeferenced information of land cover is used to define the frictional drag at the sea bottom and to infer modifications to the momentum transmitted to the water column by the winds. We investigated uncertainties in the surge response arising from land cover for Texas central bays considering several land cover datasets. The uncertainties were quantified based on the mean maximum surge response and inundated area extent. Considering projected SLR, wetland composition and spatial distribution are also expected to change with coastal environmental conditions. Our results showed that wetland degradation by SLR increased the mean maximum surge for coastal bays. Direct damage to buildings and businesses was also significantly increased by the loss of wetlands due to SLR. Here, we demonstrated the importance of considering the effects of land cover and SLR to hurricane storm surge simulations for coastal structure design, floodplain delineation or coastal planning.

This dissertation investigates: (1) the climate change effects on the mean and higher order moments of crop yield distributions; (2) the effects of irrigation with and without its interactive terms with climate variables; (3) the climate effects on crop mix and climate change adaptation. The first essay explores how the climate change impacts the crop yield distribution. Using the flexible moment based approach, this study infers that external climate factors influence not only mean crop yield and variability, but also its higher order moments, skewness and kurtosis. The climate effects on each moment vary by crops. The second essay examines the irrigation effects on the mean crop yield. While the irrigation effects estimated from the model with irrigation dummy are constant regardless of climate conditions, the irrigation effects estimated from the model with irrigation dummy and interactive variables between irrigation and climate are affected by external climate factors. This study shows that as temperature increases, the irrigation effects are decreased and irrigation reduces damages from extreme temperature conditions. Precipitation and PDSI effects are also diminished under irrigation. The third essay explores the effects of climate on crop producers' choice. Our findings point out that the climate factors have significant impacts on crop choice and future climate change will alter the crop mix. Under the projected climate change of increasing temperature and precipitation, wheat and soybeans cropland will be switched to upland cotton. The major producing locations of upland cotton, rice, and soybeans will be shifted to the north. However, most of corn will be still cultivated in the Corn Belt and changes in acreage planted will not be significant.

University of Technology, Sydney. Faculty of Science. / Global climate change is leading to the rise of ocean temperatures and is triggering mass coral bleaching events on reefs around the world. This involves the expulsion of the symbiotic dinoflagellate algae, known as zooxanthellae, from the coral host. Coral bleaching is believed to occur as a result of damage to the photosynthetic apparatus of these symbionts, although the specific site of initial impact is yet to be conclusively resolved. This thesis examined a number of sites within the light reactions of photosynthesis and evaluated the efficiency of photoprotective heat dissipating pathways. Upon expulsion, the capacity for long-term survivorship of expelled zooxanthellae in the water column was also assessed. A reduction in photosystem II (PSII) photochemical efficiency during exposure to elevated temperature and high light (bleaching conditions) was found to be highly dependent upon the increase in abundance of QB non-reducing PSII centres (inactive PSII centres), indicating damage to the site of the secondary electron acceptor, QB, resulting in a limited capacity for its reduction. Therefore, this reduced the rate of the reoxidation of the primary electron acceptor, QA-. Fast induction curve (FIC) analysis of the rise from minimum fluorescence to maximum fluorescence revealed a lower amplitude in the J step along this curve, which was consistent with a reduction in the rate of QA reoxidation. This photoinhibition of PSII was found to occur once the effectiveness of excess energy dissipation through energy-dependent quenching and state-transition quenching was exceeded, suggesting that these mechanisms were incapable of preventing photodamage. Antenna size heterogeneity showed little change under bleaching conditions with a significant increase in PSIIbeta only apparent in one species of coral. The thermostability of the oxygen evolving complex (OEC) and thylakoid membrane were found to increase during exposure to bleaching conditions and exceeded bleaching thresholds of corals. This rapid rise in temperature-dependent thermostability also occurred over seasons, where variation in ocean temperatures was matched by gradual shifts in OEC and thylakoid membrane thermotolerance. Variation in thermostability between species was not found to be linked to zooxanthellae genotype, and instead was related to the bleaching susceptibility of the host. Despite this capacity for resilience to bleaching conditions, the PSII reaction centres did not exhibit such a mechanism for rapid acclimatisation. Corals can only be as tolerant to bleaching conditions as their most sensitive component allows. The formation of nonfunctional PSII centres is therefore suggested to be involved in the initial photochemical damage to zooxanthellae which leads to a bleaching response. Zooxanthellae were found to be expelled irrespective of OEC function and thylakoid membrane integrity, as these sites of the photosynthetic apparatus were still intact when cells were collected from the water column. Although zooxanthellae were photosynthetically competent and morphologically intact upon expulsion, their longevity in the water column was dependent on the time of expulsion following the onset of bleaching and the ambient water temperatures. The survivorship of these zooxanthellae was restricted to a maximum of 5 days in the water column which suggests that unless expelled zooxanthellae inhabit other environs of coral reefs which may be more favourable for survival, their capacity for persistence in the environment is extremely limited. Chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements are a common tool for investigating photosynthetic impacts to in hospite zooxanthellae of corals. Pathways causing dark-reduction of the plastoquinone pool are shown to be active in corals and affect measurements which require dark-adaptation. Pre-exposure to far-red light was found to be an effective procedure to oxidise the inter-system electron transport chain and ensure determination of the true maximum quantum yield of PSII and accurate FICs. It is concluded that the trigger for coral bleaching lies in the photosynthetic apparatus of zooxanthellae and evidence is presented in support of this impact site not being the OEC or thylakoid membrane.