Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1991. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 151-164). / Microfiche. / ix, 164 leaves, bound 29 cm

Ever since introduced and rolled out on the market during the 1950's and 1960's the supermarket format of grocery retail stores has played an important role in the grocery retail sector in Sweden, as well as in other countries. Although the sector in Sweden has evolved into a sector harbouring various store formats, the supermarket remains the major one - about half of the total volume of sales currently goes through supermarkets. Issues referring to the economic performance of supermarkets, and its antecedents, are thus of interest not only to retailers, but also to consumers as well as to society, overall. This study contributes to previous research by explicitly addressing bottom-line performance of supermarkets, and by bridging different fields of research. With the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) paradigm as theoretical underpinning, a cross-sectional design is developed for the study, comprising the economic performance of 168 supermarkets. By pooling data from various sources a unique database is developed, providing prerequisites for a comprehensive investigation into the effects of scale of operation, local market conditions, and supermarket conduct on various aspects of supermarket performance, all the way to bottom-line profitability performance.   The results show that profitability performance of supermarkets is a consequence of a complex network of relationships between various aspects of economic performance, scale of operation, local market conditions and supermarket conduct. The profit margin, i.e. the span between gross margin and operating costs%, turns out as the major determinant of profitability performance. The profit margin, in turn, is found related to productivity, which in turn is found related to the volume of sales. Scale of operation and local market conditions are found working themselves into profitability performance, via conduct and various aspects of economic performance. However, neither scale nor favorable local market conditions turns out as the determinant of high rather than low profitability performance. Among the most as well as among least profitable, there are small and large supermarkets, facing local markets of favorable as well as unfavorable conditions. Rather, the dividing line between the low vs. highly profitable lies in the interplay between market conditions and conduct. Results from analyses of internal and external characteristics of the least and most profitable show important dissimilarities referring to their interplay with local market conditions. As such, the study provides important implications for retailers, from a strategical, tactical, as well as operational perspective. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2009

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Sydney, [2004?]. / Title from title screen (viewed 30 May 2008). Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy to the Discipline of Work and Organisational Studies. Includes bibliographical references. Also available in print form.

Zugl.: Eichstätt, Ingolstadt, Universiẗat, Diss., 2005.

Thesis (Civ.E)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil Engineering, 1981 / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ENGINEERING. / Bibliography: leaves 126-129. / by Dimitrios Andreou Tsamboulas. / Civ.E

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Agricultural Economics / Vincent Amanor-Boadu / Allen M. Featherstone / Estimation of cost functions can provide useful economic information to producers, economists, and policy makers. From the estimation of a cost function, it is possible to calculate cost efficiency, economies of scope, and economies of scale. Economic theory specifies the cost function as a frontier since firms cannot operate at lower cost than the cost minimizing input/output bundle. However, traditional parametric estimation techniques often violate economic theory using two sided-error systems. The stochastic frontier method has allowed the estimation of a frontier but continues to restrict the technology through functional assumption. Nonparametric frontier estimation is an alternative approach to estimate a cost frontier by enveloping the data which by its construct, conforms to economic theory. This research expands the economic information available by deriving multi-product scale economies and product-specific scale economies from the nonparametric approach. It also tests its ability to accurately recover these important economic measures under different assumptions of the cost function, and cost inefficiency distributions. Next, this new method is compared to other methods used to estimate cost functions and associated economic measures including a two-sided error system, stochastic frontier method, and an OLS model restricting the errors to take on only positive values. Finally, the nonparametric approach with the new measures is applied to a sample of Kansas farms. The nonparametric approach is able to closely estimate economies of scale and scope from estimation of a cost frontier. Comparison reveals that the nonparametric approach is closer to the “true” economic measures than some parametric methods and that it is better able to extrapolate out of sample when there are no zero output firms. Finally, the nonparametric approach shows that potential cost savings from economies of scale and economies of scope exist for small Kansas farms. However, cost savings from economies of scale become exhausted when farms exceed gross annual revenues of $500k, while economies of scope also diminish as farms grow larger. Results also show from annual frontier estimations that estimates of economies of scale, scope, and cost efficiency have remained relatively stable from 2002 to 2011.

藉由觀察台灣共同基金的費用與規模，探討台灣的共同基金是否存在規模經濟的現象，實證結果發現，個別基金的費用與規模之間，並無顯著的規模經濟；而基金家族底下的總資產在台幣四千到七千萬時，有顯著的規模經濟現象；透過logit模型，發現基金成立的年限、報酬、以及標準差對基金的規模經濟都有顯著的正面影響；採用Fixed-effect模型，基金成立的年限及報酬，仍對基金的規模經濟都有顯著的正面影響。 / All mutual funds typically pay their regular and recurring, fund-wide operating expenses out of fund assets, rather than by imposing separate fees and charges on investors. Investors using performance evaluation as a selection criterion may be misleading due to the volatility of investment returns. It is obscured to identify whether the fund’s performance is because of the superior return or just good luck. However, mutual fund expenses are stable and can be used as an assessment of the variation in efficiency levels across various mutual fund size groupings when we took the individual mutual funds or mutual fund families as the unit of investigation. This study uncovers that no significant differences exist across individual mutual fund size categories. By utilizing the family dollar size as the base unit of analysis, the result is similar. But there are distinctions in the analysis of mutual fund-specific elasticities when the fund family size is between NT$40-70 million dollars. However, mutual fund-specific elasticities are revealed to differ in a statically significant level across mutual fund investment objective categories. By applying the logistic regression, the results indicate that age, return, and standard deviation have statistically significant positive effects on the economies of scale. By applying the fixed-effect model and making the intercepts vary with various mutual funds family, our results are stable and consistent. Mutual funds’ age or return demonstrates positive effect on the scale of economies.

Thesis advisor: Arthur Lewbel / My doctoral research comprises both structural empirical work in the field of household economics (Chapters 1 and 3) and reduced-form theoretical work in econometrics (Chapter 2). The first chapter quantifies consumption gains in the form of consumption expenditure savings for couples living together versus apart. Moreover, I comprehensively analyze the key drivers of heterogeneity in consumption gains across couples. The second chapter, which is joint work with Stefan Hoderlein, develops the first difference-in-differences model for binary choice outcome variables when treatment effects are heterogeneous. Finally, in the third chapter, I study the realized gains in consumption levels upon move-in from single to couple and move-out from couple to single, separately by gender. Chapter 1. In “Heterogeneity in Consumption Gains from Living Together as a Couple”, I estimate consumption gains from living together versus apart. Specifically, this chapter quantifies these gains from consumption economies of scale for married as well as unmarried cohabiting couples in the U.S. I also comprehensively analyze the determinants of heterogeneity in consumption gains. For this purpose, I extend a recent collective household model to incorporate heterogeneity in consumption economies of scale and perform structural estimation using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID). I find that couples living together save an average of 14 percent in annual consumption expenditures compared to their counterfactual spending when living apart. Moreover, older couples and homeowner couples experience higher consumption economies of scale and thus higher consumption gains. I do not detect marital status to be a determining factor. These results have implications for appropriate adjustment of poverty thresholds across households of different sizes. Chapter 2. In “Binary Choice Difference-in-Differences Model with Heterogeneous Treatment Effects”, we develop the first Difference-in-Differences Model for binary choice outcome variables when treatment effects are heterogeneous. Our main result establishes identification of the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT). Moreover, we present two extensions. First, we show identification of the joint distribution of the actual and counterfactual latent outcome variable in the treatment group. Second, we extend the basic model to allow for the inclusion of covariates. We suggest an estimator for the ATT and evaluate its finite sample properties with the help of Monte Carlo simulations. Chapter 3. In “Realized Consumption Gains from Living Together as a Couple by Gender”, I am among the first to analyze how consumption gains from living together as a couple are split between men and women and whether this varies by individual-level or couple-level observables. Understanding individual-level consumption gains is important for rationalizing marriage and cohabitation decisions on the micro-level, and marriage and cohabitation patterns on the macro-level. I use the extended collective household model from Chapter 1 and data from the PSID to estimate male and female realized consumption gains from moving in as a couple and moving out of a couple. Average realized consumption gains upon move-in are positive for women and negative for men. This reverses for dissolving couples. Lastly, individuals who move in with their spouse have higher realized consumption gains than individuals who decide to cohabit without a marriage certificate. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Economics.

Este estudo tem a finalidade de estimar uma função de custo transcendental logarítmica para a atividade de produção de soja, e através dela determinar o tamanho ótimo da atividade de produção de soja, a fim de inferir sobre a existência, ou não, de economias de escala no setor. Adicionalmente, objetiva-se a caracterização sócio-econômica dos produtores de soja pesquisados e a análise das possibilidades de substituição dos recursos no processo produtivo da atividade. O referencial teórico do estudo é a teoria da dualidade da função custo e da função de produção. Os dados utilizados para a análise são de corte transversal, obtidos a partir de uma pesquisa de campo, realizada de agosto a dezembro de 2005, em uma amostra de 218 (duzentos e dezoito) produtores de soja nos cinco principais estados produtores do país: Mato Grosso, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, Goiás e Mato Grosso do Sul. A amostra representa as realidades regionais, com o predomínio de produtores com pequenas propriedades nos estados da região Sul do país e produtores com propriedades maiores no Centro-Oeste brasileiro. As elasticidades-preço cruzadas mostraram que há complementaridade entre os fatores mão-de-obra e capital. As elasticidades de substituição parcial de Allen indicaram substituição entre a maior parte dos fatores de produção. Houve uma forte relação de complementaridade entre os fatores capital e mão-de-obra e de substituição entre os fatores químicos e mão-de-obra. Na classificação de Morishima, capital e mão-de-obra são complementares quando o preço de capital varia, e substitutos quando varia o preço do fator mão-de-obra. As estimativas de economias de escala obtidas apontam uma escala ótima de produção de aproximadamente 11.880 toneladas de soja em grão, que pode ser obtida em propriedades com aproximadamente 4.000 hectares de área de produção de soja. Os resultados empíricos obtidos neste trabalho sugerem que as economias de escala estejam determinando uma nova configuração para o setor de produção de soja no Brasil. No entanto, algumas características da pequena produção podem minimizar a importância dessas economias e estão sendo determinantes para a manutenção da produção em pequena escala na região Sul do país, no curto prazo. / The main objective of this paper is to estimate a translog cost function for the soybean production activity in Brazil, to infer about the existence of scale economies in the sector. We use cross-section data obtained through a field research undertake during the period of September to December 2004, in a sample of 218 soybean-producing units in the main producer states in Brazil. The paper also addresses a socio-economic characterization of the surveyed units and analyses substitution possibilities between inputs. The sample reflects regional detail of production structure, with smaller producers concentrated in Southern Brazil and larger producers concentrate in the Center-West region. The elasticities of derived demand showed complementary relation between labor and capital. The Allen partial elasticities of substitution show substitution between most of the production inputs. Capital and labor are complements and chemical and labor are substitutes. In terms of Morishima elasticity of substitution capital and labor are complements when capital price varies and they are substitutes when labor price varies. The economies of scale estimates point to an optimal scale of production around 12 thousand ton that could be produced in an area with approximately 4,000 hectares. The results suggest that the presence of scale economies could be determining a new production structure for the sector in Brazil. And finally, the evidence found also suggests that some aspects of the small production system work to reduce the importance of these scale economies, and are determinant to keep the small-scale operations in the traditional regions in the short run.

Neste trabalho analisou-se o problema da manutenção, no longo prazo, dos produtores de leite na atividade. Foram analisados estabelecimentos nos estados de Rondônia, Tocantins e Rio de Janeiro. O que se pode notar é um significativo grupo que se mantém por longos anos produzindo pouco, sendo que possui capacidade para aumentar a produção. As restrições que impedem este grupo de se especializar, estão ligadas à uma série de imperfeições inerentes ao mercado e, que acabam tornando dos produtores, principalmente os pequenos, vítimas deste sistema. O objetivo principal do trabalho foi verificar a existência de economias de escala entre os produtores de leite dos estados de Rondônia, Tocantins e Rio de Janeiro. Para isso foram estimadas cinco funções custo com diferentes níveis de restrições. A função que apresentou melhor aderência aos dados foi a de custo translog. Os fatores de produção considerados foram capital, terra, trabalho e os dispêndios diretos. A análise econômica mostra a dificuldade de sobrevivência dos estabelecimentos no longo prazo. Isto ocorre porque a relação capital imobilizado/produção é muito alta. Este capital também se mostra concentrado em investimentos que indicam baixo nível tecnológico, como por exemplo, no fator terra e em animais com baixa aptidão para a atividade leiteira. O investimento em máquinas e equipamentos foi baixo nos três estados analisados, não sendo superior a 5% do total de capital imobilizado. Em relação à composição do rebanho nos estados, nota-se, sobretudo entre os pequenos produtores, a presença de muitos animais nas categorias de novilha, bezerro e machos em recria e engorda. A mão-deobra utilizada na maioria dos estabelecimentos era de origem familiar. Apenas no estado do Rio de Janeiro percebe-se maior quantidade de mão-de-obra contratada. Quanto à taxa de retorno da atividade, nenhum dos três estados apresentou taxas maiores que 6%, mesmo quando o custo da terra era excluído do cálculo. Ressalta-se que o estado do Rio de Janeiro foi o que apresentou maiores taxas de retorno. Nota-se uma relação direta entre os níveis de produtividade e as taxas de retorno. Os resultados da regressão revelam que a grande maioria dos produtores da amostra está na faixa de economias de escala, sendo que apenas 3,4% destes estão na faixa de deseconomias de escala. O ponto de custo médio mínimo foi obtido na faixa de 178 mil litros por ano, ou seja, média diária de 487 litros por dia. Outro grupo composto por 10% da amostra está mais próximo do ponto de custo médio mínimo e apresenta produção diária entre 183 e 487 litros por dia. E finalmente, o último grupo que aparece em situação menos favorável, apresentando uma produção inferior a 180 litros/dia. Destaca-se que estes podem reduzir de forma significativa os custos se aumentarem a produção, já que se encontram na faixa mais acentuada da curva de custo médio de longo prazo e podem crescer bastante na atividade usufruindo das economias de escala. / This study aimed to analize the business maintenance issue faced by milk producers, in the long term. It was analized farms in the states of Rondônia, Tocantins and Rio de Janeiro. What can be noticed is a group that has maintained itself for years with little production, whereas it is able to increase it. The restrictions that prevent the group from specializing, are linked to a series of imperfections inherent to the market, which end up turning producers, especially the small ones, into victms of this system. The main goal of this study was to verify the existence of economies of scale among milk producers in the states of Rondônia, Tocantins and Rio de Janeiro. In order to do so, it was estimated five cost functions at different levels of restrictions. The function that presented better adequacy to the data was that of cost translog. The production factors taken into consideration were: capital, land, work and direct expenses. The economic analysis shows the difficulties to survive faced by farmers in the long term. This happens because the relation immobilized capital/production is very high. This capital is also found in investments which indicate low technological level, as an example, in the land factor and in animals with low milk production. The investment in machinery and equipment was low in the three states studied, without reaching 5% of the whole immobilized capital. As for the compositon of livestocks in the states, it is noticed, especially among small producers, the presence of many animals in the categories of heifers, calves, males for breeding and fattening. The workforce used in most farms was of family origin. Only in the state of Rio de Janeiro it was noticed a higher number of hired workforce. As for the return rate of the activity, none of the three states presented rates higher than 6%, even when the value of the land was excluded from the figure. It is pointed out that the state of Rio de Janeiro showed higher return rates. It is observed a direct relation between the productivity levels of and the return rates. The regression results reveal that the vast majority of producers in this case study operate in economies of scale, being that only 3.4% of them do not. The point of minimum average cost was obtained at about 178 thousand liters per year, that is, an average of 487 liters per day. Another group formed by 10% of the case study is closer to the point of minimum average cost and presents a daily production between 183 and 487 liters. And finally, the last group which presents itself in a less favorable situation with a production lower than 180 liters per day. It is highlighted that these producers can significantly reduce their costs if they increase their production, once they are found in the most accentuated part of the average cost cuve in the long term and can greatly develop in the activity by using the economies of scale.