<p>Adult prostate stem cells (PSC) are a rare epithelial progenitor population in the prostate. While essential for normal homeostasis, they have also been implicated in hyperplasia and cancer initiation. While studies have shown that inflammatory growth factors and cytokines can fuel stem cell expansion, the impact of inflammation on PSC is not well understood. To study the impact of inflammation on the prostate, the Ratliff laboratory developed the Prostate Ovalbumin Expressing Transgenic 3 (POET3), an inducible mouse model of abacterial T cell mediated prostate inflammation, which functions as a model for human autoimmune prostatitis. Previous studies using the POET3 demonstrated that inflammation increased proliferation and differentiation of PSC enrichments. Based on these findings, it was speculated that inflammation impacts prostate stem cells to enhance mechanisms of survival, possibly as a means of tissue protection.</p><p>Since androgen receptor (AR) signaling is the major driver of cellular differentiation and survival in the prostate, it was further hypothesized that inflammation promotes AR signaling in the PSC. To address this hypothesis, PSC and their resulting organoids from inflamed and non-inflamed (naïve) POET3 mice as well as human patient samples were assessed for AR and its signaling components.</p><p>These data were expanded by single cell mRNA sequencing using Fluidigm’s C1 platform, which revealed changes in stem cell populations, differential expression of interleukin 1 alpha (IL-1⍺) and its signaling components, and upregulation of various genes associated with immune regulation. Thus, experiments described herein probed the impacts of inflammation on AR, IL-1⍺, and T cell regulatory abilities in the PSC.</p>The results of these studies indicate that indeed, inflammation increases PSC survival. Inhibition of IL-1⍺ via inflammation-mediated up-regulation of IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) promotes AR signaling, resulting in proliferation, differentiation, and AR target gene expression which can be modulated by Enzalutamide (a clinical AR inhibitor). Furthermore, PSC from inflamed mice are able to suppress cytotoxic T cell function in <i>ex vivo</i> assays. These studies set the foundation for new ways to treat proliferative diseases of the prostate by targeting IL-1⍺, AR, and immune regulation in the PSC.

Orientador: Patricia Fernanda Felipe Pinheiro / Resumo: A programação fetal (PF) é o resultado permanente do organismo na presença de estímulos ocorridos durante os períodos críticos de desenvolvimento. Vários fatores ambientais podem levar à PF. Entre eles, podemos citar a restrição alimentar materna ou a deficiência específica de nutrientes. De acordo com a janela de programação fetal masculinizante (MPW), os andrógenos agem para assegurar o desenvolvimento normal dos órgãos reprodutores do macho, assim, foram estudados os efeitos da restrição proteica materna durante a gestação e lactação sobre o desenvolvimento da próstata ventral de ratos Wistar. Para isto, dois grupos de ratas gestantes foram alimentadas com dietas isocalóricas, sendo um grupo normoproteico (NP) e o outro grupo hipoproteico (RP). Os grupos NP e RP tiveram livre acesso à dieta durante os períodos de gestação e lactação. Após o desmame, metade da prole de machos foi eutanasiada. A outra metade da prole de machos recebeu dieta padrão de animais de laboratório até os 120 dias de idade. A próstata ventral foi estudada por imuno-histoquímica para a avaliação da localização do antígeno de proliferação celular (PCNA), da proteína p63, dos receptores de andrógeno (AR), de estrógeno alfa (ER-α), de grelina (GHSR-1a), de leptina (Ob -R). Os pesos corpóreo, da próstata ventral, dos testículos e do tecido adiposo e os níveis de testosterona e estradiol foram obtidos. A PF determinou atraso no crescimento somático dos animais do grupo RP e diminuição do estradiol plasmáti... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Fetal programming (FP) is the permanent result of the organism in the presence of stimuli during the periods of development. Several environmental factors can lead to FP. Among them, we can mention the maternal food restriction or deficiency of specific nutrients. According to the masculinization programming window (MPW) in which androgens act to ensure normal development of the male reproductive organs, we studied the effects of maternal protein restriction during pregnancy and lactation period on the development of the Wistar rat ventral prostate. Dams of the group (NP) were fed diet containing 17% protein; Dams of the group (RP) were fed diet containing 8% protein. The NP and RP groups had free access to diet during pregnancy and lactation period. After weaning, half of the male pups was killed. The other half of male pups received a standard laboratory diet until 120 days old. The ventral prostate was studied immunohistochemically to evaluate the expression of cell proliferation antigen (PCNA), p63 protein, androgen (AR), alpha estrogen (ER-α), ghrelin (GHSR-1a), leptin (Ob -R) receptors. The body, ventral prostate, testes and adipose tissue weights, testosterone and estradiol levels were determined. FP determined a delay somatic growth of the RP group and decrease of the plasmatic estradiol of the adult animals of the RP group. At 21 days of age, the RP group presented less intense immunostaining for ER-α, GHSR-1a, and Ob-R when compared to the NP group. At 120 days, the... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der Wachstumsfaktoren IGF-I, EGF und dem Zytokin IL-6 auf den Androgenrezeptor-Signalweg zeigten in verschiedenen Prostatakarzinom-zelllinien schon nach zwei Stunden eine deutliche Degradation des Androgenrezeptor-Proteins. Die ausschließlich auf Protein-Ebene stattfindende, Wachstumsfaktor-induzierte negative Regulation des Androgenrezeptors konnte durch einen schnellen Androgeneffekt wieder aufgehoben werden. Mittels Luziferase-Reportergen-Assays wurde kein Einfluss der Wachstums-faktorwirkung auf die transkriptionelle Aktivität des Androgenrezeptors nachgewiesen. Darüber hinaus konnte eine signifikant reprimierende Wirkung durch IGF-I und EGF in Kombination mit geringen Mengen DHT beobachtet werden. Weitere Resultate dieser Arbeit deuten auf einen, durch den PI3-Kinase-Signalweg vermittelten, proteasomalen Abbauprozess des Rezeptors hin. Da die Suppression der downstream gelegenen Proteinkinase Akt keine Veränderung hinsichtlich der Degradation aufwies, konzentrierte sich die weiterführende Arbeit auf eine mögliche direkte Regulation des Androgen-rezeptors durch die PI3-Kinase. Unter Verwendung von rekombinanten GST-Fusionsproteinen konnte in Interaktionsstudien unter in vitro Bedingungen eine Phosphotyrosin-unabhängige Bindung zwischen der C-SH2-Domäne der p85-Untereinheit der PI3-Kinase und dem N- und C-Terminus des Androgenrezeptors nachgewiesen werden. Durch die nähere Charakterisierung dieser Bindungsbereiche mit Hilfe von Peptidarrays und anschließenden Alanin-Substitutionen war es möglich, für den N-Terminus 18, für den C-Terminus des Androgenrezeptors 6 und für die p85-C-SH2-Domäne der PI3-Kinase 11 Aminosäuren zu identifizieren. Die durch gezielte Punktmutagenese an diesen Aminosäurepositionen hergestellten Androgenrezeptor-Einzel- und -Mehrfachmutanten wiesen in Bindungsstudien dennoch Interaktion zur PI3-Kinase auf. Eine von Anderson und Kollegen postulierte Phosphotyrosin-unabhängige Bindung der SH2-Domänen der p85-Untereinheit der PI3-Kinase durch sogenannte „basic-X-basic“-Motive wurde ebenfalls in Interaktionstests zwischen der PI3-Kinase und dem Androgenrezeptor überprüft. Aufgrund der Tatsache, dass einige der identifizierten Aminosäuren auf dem Androgenrezeptor Teil eines „basic-X-basic“-Bindungsmotives sind, wurden Kombinationsmutanten generiert, die sowohl im N-Terminus als auch im C﷓Terminus des Androgenrezeptors ein bzw. zwei zerstörte „basic-X-basic“-Motive enthielten. Untersuchungen zum Bindungsverhalten dieser Mutanten zeigten zwar weiterhin Interaktion zur p85-C-SH2-Domäne der PI3-Kinase, jedoch der durch Western-blot-Analyse überprüfte IGF-I-induzierte Degradationseffekt des Androgenrezeptor-Proteins konnte mit zwei der verwendeten Androgenrezeptor-Kombinationsmutanten nicht mehr beobachtet werden.

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Le développement et l’homéostasie cellulaire de la prostate impliquent le contrôle strict des voies de signalisation induites par les androgènes et les facteurs de croissance. Ces diverses voies sont profondément altérées dans le cancer de la prostate, notamment lors des stades les plus avancés. Dans ce travail, une lignée immortalisée à partir de l’épithélium de prostate humaine, la lignée RWPE-1, a été utilisée pour étudier certains signaux régulant la prolifération cellulaire, ainsi que les connexions entre les voies de signalisation correspondantes. La prolifération des cellules RWPE-1 est sous la dépendance de l’EGF (Epidermal Growth Factor) qui intervient physiologiquement dans le développement épithélial. Les récepteurs apparentés à l’EGF-R sont également impliqués dans la prolifération au cours de la progression tumorale. La prolifération des cellules RWPE-1 en réponse à l’EGF est strictement dépendante de la voie ERK1/2, qui est donc considérée comme un point d’intégration des signaux. L’utilisation d’inhibiteurs du récepteur aux androgènes a permis de montrer le rôle essentiel qu’il joue dans l’activation d’ERK1/2 en réponse à l’EGF. Le récepteur aux androgènes s’associe avec plusieurs molécules de signalisation dans les cellules RWPE-1. Je démontre ici pour la première fois une association entre le récepteur aux androgènes et la kinase Raf-1, activatrice de la voie ERK1/2. Ainsi, le récepteur aux androgènes contrôlerait directement un processus essentiel à la prolifération épithéliale selon un mode d’action non-génomique. Par ailleurs, j’ai montré que la réponse proliférative des cellules RWPE-1 à l’IL-6 requiert l’activation de la voie ERK1/2, et l’activité kinase de l’EGF-R, suggérant la transactivation de ce récepteur par l’IL-6. L’utilisation de divers inhibiteurs chimiques a permis de démontrer que les métalloprotéases de la famille ADAM (a disintegrin and metalloprotease), notamment ADAM17, sont impliquées dans ce processus. Ainsi, l’activation de protéines ADAM par l’IL-6 conduirait au clivage d’un ligand membranaire de l’EGF-R, aboutissant à l’activation de la voie ERK1/2. Ce nouveau mécanisme pourrait être impliqué dans les situations inflammatoires conduisant à une prolifération excessive de l’épithélium prostatique, prélude à la transformation tumorale. En conclusion, les voies de signalisation étudiées sont fortement connectées dans les cellules épithéliales normales. Les deux nouveaux mécanismes décrits ici aboutissent à l’activation des kinases ERK1/2, point d’intégration et de convergence des voies de signalisation dans les cellules épithéliales de prostate normale. / Prostate development and cell homeostasis involve strict control of androgen and growth factors induced signaling pathways. These signaling pathways are deeply altered in prostate cancer, especially during late stages. In this work, the RWPE-1 immortalized cell line derived from human prostate epithelium has been used to study the signaling pathways regulating cell proliferation and their crosstalk. Optimal RWPE-1 proliferation is dependent on EGF (Epidermal Growth Factor), that also controls normal epithelial development. EGF-R family is also involved in cancer cell proliferation. EGF-dependent RWPE- 1 cell proliferation relies strictly on the ERK1/2 pathway which is then seen as a signal integrating node. Specific inhibitors showed essential role of androgen receptor in EGF mediated ERK1/2 activation. Androgen receptor is associated with several signaling molecules in RWPE-1 cells. I show here for the first time the physical interaction between the androgen receptor and the ERK1/2 activating kinase Raf1. Then, the androgen receptor could directly regulate an essential pathway for epithelial cells proliferation through a non-genomic mechanism. In addition, I showed that IL-6 dependent RWPE-1 cells proliferation requires both ERK1/2 and EGF-R kinase activities, suggesting an IL-6 mediated transactivation of EGF-R. By using several inhibitors, I showed that ADAM (a disintegrin and metalloprotease) family metaloproteases, especialy ADAM17, are involved in this process. IL-6-mediated ADAM proteins activation could lead to the cleavage of a membrane bound EGF-R ligand, leading to ERK1/2 pathway activation. This new mechanism could be involved in the inflammatory situations inducing hyperproliferation of the prostate epithelium, the first step of the transformation process. To conclude, the signaling pathways I studied are strongly connected in normal epithelial cells. The two new mechanisms described in this study lead to ERK1/2 kinases activation, an integrating node of signaling pathways in normal prostate epithelial cells.

INTRODUÇÃO: Os carcinomas HER-2 positivos representam cerca de 20- 30% de todos os tumores da mama e se caracterizam por curso clínico mais agressivo, com alta proliferação celular e resistência a apoptose, determinados por cascatas de sinalizações intracelulares, tais como a via PI3K/AKT. O trastuzumabe, um anticorpo monoclonal humanizado que se liga à molécula de HER-2, é o tratamento padrão destas pacientes. A resposta a monoterapia com trastuzumabe varia de 12-30% e a persistência da ativação da via PI3K/AKT é um dos mecanismos de resistência. A ativação do AKT começa com a fosforilação do PIP2 a PIP3 pela PI3K. A desfosforilação do PIP3 é mediada pela PTEN e sua deficiência é um dos fatores possivelmente implicados na resistência ao trastuzumabe. Além da resistência à terapêutica, os tumores HER-2 positivos são heterogêneos quanto ao seu comportamento biológico. A busca de diferentes padrões morfológicos e moleculares neste grupo de carcinomas pretende identificar subgrupos prognósticos e preditivos, permitindo a individualização terapêutica. OBJETIVOS: Estudar a expressão imunoistoquímica de duas moléculas da via de sinalização PI3K/AKT (PTEN e AKT fosforilada) e explorar a via de sinalização androgênica através da expressão do receptor de androgênio e dos perfis morfológico e molecular apócrinos. METODOLOGIA: O estudo foi retrospectivo com revisão dos preparados histológicos e construção de blocos de microarranjos com amostras dos tumores para estudo imunoistoquímico. Na revisão foram avaliados: tipo histológico, características morfológicas apócrinas, presença de componente in situ, graus histológico e nuclear, receptores de estrogênio e progesterona, e atividade proliferativa através da expressão imunoistoquímica do Ki-67. Os preparados histológicos foram submetidos à pesquisa de PTEN, AKT fosforilada e receptor de androgênio. Pacientes, familiares e médicos foram contatados para recuperação do seguimento e evolução. RESULTADOS: Foram estudadas 104 pacientes portadoras de carcinoma primário da mama. A expressão de PTEN esteve reduzida em 20/104 (19,2%) dos casos e foi mais freqüente nos tumores com AKT positivo (p= 0,06). O grupo de tumores sem perda de expressão de PTEN apresentou maior atividade proliferativa. A AKT foi positiva em 71/104 (68,3%) casos e se associou a maior grau de diferenciação e à expressão de receptor de androgênio. O receptor de androgênio foi positivo em 89/104 (85,6%) dos casos e esteve associado ao menor grau histológico (p=0,018), receptor de estrogênio (p=0,008) e menor atividade proliferativa (p=0,001). A ausência da expressão do receptor de estrogênio (perfil molecular apócrino) foi identificada em 41/104 casos (39,4%) e se associou a tumores com grau histológico mais alto. O perfil morfológico apócrino foi identificado em 71 (68,3%) dos casos e se associou a alto grau histológico e nuclear. O seguimento foi possível em 55 casos e observamos tendência a menor sobrevida livre de doença nos tumores AKTpositivos e RA-negativos. CONCLUSÕES: Nossos resultados comprovam a heterogeneidade dos carcinomas mamários HER-2 positivos e indicam diferenças em pelos menos duas vias de sinalização celulares como possíveis explicações para as mesmas: a via PI3K/AKT e a androgênica / BACKGROUND: HER-2 positive carcinomas represent about 20-30% of all breast tumors and are characterized by a more aggressive clinical course with high cell proliferation and apoptosis resistance, determined by cascades of intracellular signals, such as the PI3K/AKT pathway. Trastuzumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to HER-2 molecule, is the standard treatment for these patients. The response to monotherapy with trastuzumab ranges from 12-30% and the persistence of activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway is one of mechanisms of resistance. Activation of AKT begins with the phosphorylation of PIP2 to PIP3 by PI3K. The dephosphorylation of PIP3 is mediated by PTEN and its deficiency is one of the factors possibly involved in resistance to trastuzumab. In addition to resistance to therapy, HER-2 positive tumors are heterogeneous in their biologic behavior. The search for different morphological and molecular patterns of carcinomas in this group aims to identify prognostic and predictive subgroups, allowing for customized therapy. OBJECTIVES: To study the immunohistochemical expression of two molecules of the signaling pathway PI3K/AKT (phosphorylated AKT and PTEN) and to explore the androgen signaling pathway through the expression of androgen receptor and apocrine morphological and molecular profiles. METHODS: This study retrospectively reviewed the histological preparations and built tissue microarray with tumor samples for immunohistochemical study. We assessed histologic type, apocrine morphology, presence of in situ component, histologic and nuclear grade, estrogen and progesterone receptors and proliferative activity through the immunohistochemical expression of Ki-67. The tissue preparations were examined for PTEN, phosphorylated AKT and androgen receptor. Patients, relatives and physicians were contacted for retrieval of follow-up data. RESULTS: We studied 104 primary breast cancer patients. The expression of PTEN was reduced in 20/104 (19.2%) cases and was more frequent in tumors with positive AKT (p = 0.06). The group of tumors without loss of PTEN expression showed higher proliferative activity. AKT was positive in 71/104 (68.3%) cases and was associated with a higher degree of differentiation and with expression of androgen receptor. The androgen receptor was positive in 89/104 (85.6%) cases and was associated with lower histological grade (p = 0.018), estrogen receptor (p = 0.008) and lower proliferative activity (p = 0.001). The absence of expression of estrogen receptor (apocrine molecular profile) was identified in 41/104 cases (39.4%) and was associated with tumors of higher histologic grade. The apocrine morphological profile was identified in 71 (68.3%) cases and was associated with high histological grade and nuclear. Follow-up was possible in 55 cases and a trend for shorter disease-free survival was observed in AKT-positive and AR-negative tumors. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirmed that HER-2-positive breast cancers are heterogeneous and indicate that differences in at least two cellular signaling pathways PI3K/AKT and androgen pathway might underliy such a heterogeneity

La castration représente le traitement de référence du cancer de la prostate à un stade avancé. Cependant, la plupart des patients rechute du fait notamment de l’émergence de variants tronqués constitutivement actifs du récepteur des androgènes (RA). Le microenvironnement tumoral, en particulier les fibroblastes associés au cancer (CAFs), favorisent largement la progression tumorale. Ils sont très hétérogènes et dérivent de plusieurs types cellulaires dont les cellules souches mésenchymateuses (MSCs). Afin de mettre à jour l’impact des variants du RA sur le microenvironnement tumoral, mon projet de thèse a porté sur l’étude des effets de ces variants du RA sur la différenciation des MSCs en CAFs. Les résultats obtenus m’ont permis de démontrer un impact positif du variant RA Q641X sur l’expression du facteur de différenciation VEGF par les cellules tumorales, ainsi que sur l’expression des marqueurs de différenciation en CAFs FSP-1, CXCL12, PDGFR-β, ainsi que VEGF, au niveau des MSCs. Ces données suggèrent que le variant RA Q641X est capable d’induire la différenciation des MSCs en CAFs, soulignant ainsi l’importance de développer de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques ciblant ces variants du RA. / Androgen ablation therapy remains the most common treatment for patients with advanced prostate cancer. However, most patients will relapse due to the emergence of truncated constitutively active androgen receptor (AR) variants. The tumor microenvironment is another necessary feature driving prostate cancer progression. Cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the major specialized stromal cells that favor tumor progression. These cells are very heterogeneous and derive from several other cell types as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). In order to highlight the impact of AR variants on surrounding tumor stroma, the aim of my project was to investigate the effects of these AR variants on MSCs differentiation into CAFs. I noticed that the expression of VEGF, a CAF differentiation factor, was upregulated in tumor cells expressing AR Q641X variant. Similarly, the expression of CAF differentiation markers FSP-1, CXCL12, PDGFR-β, and VEGF was enhanced in MSCs in presence of AR Q641X variant. These data highlight an unknown property of AR Q641X variant in prostate tumor cells that is its ability to induce MSCs differentiation into CAFs, underlining the urgent need to develop novel strategies targeting these AR variants.