Platelet activating factor (PAF) is a unique signaling phospholipid that has many biologic properties in addition to platelet activation. PAF roles in reproduction involve ovulation, fertilization, embryo development, implantation and parturition. It may also serve as a biomarker for normal sperm function. The presence of PAF receptor on the spermatozoa of 10 stallions was investigated by immunofluorescence microscopy. Statistical analysis revealed that the fluorescence intensity, FI (Mean+/-SEM), in the post- acrosomal region (FI= 2.60+/-0.15) was significantly higher (P< 0.01) than that in any other region of stallion spermatozoa. The effect of synthetic PAF on stallion spermatozoal motility, capacitation, and the acrosome reaction (AR) were evaluated. Treatment of 10 stallion semen samples with 10 â 4 to 10 â 13 M PAF resulted in statistically significant differences in motility and capacitation (r2 = 0.81 and 0.83 respectively). The concentration of PAF, incubation time and their interaction were highly significant (P< 0.01) for their effect on motility. Concentrations of PAF ranging from 10-9 to10-11 M were able to induce capacitation. Following capacitation in vitro with PAF, and induction of the acrosomal reaction by progesterone, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was conducted on the spermatozoa of 3 stallions, to detect the true AR. Differences in PAF concentrations were highly significant as indicated by R-square (for intact: 97.2, reacted: 89.8, and for vesiculated: 98.1). Treating spermatozoa from 3 stallions with the PAF antagonist FR-49175 inhibited calcium release and fluorescence intensity with a median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 10-7.5 M (r2=0.82, P<0.01) and 10-8 M (r2=0.92, P<0.01) respectively, suggesting a receptor mediated process for the mechanism of action of PAF. Although the exact mechanisms of PAF action on equine spermatozoa remain unclear, it is widely reported that PAF acts by a receptor-mediated mechanism and that the PAF receptor is a member of the family of G-protein coupled receptors with phospholipase C as the effector. Since the limited success in equine ART (e.g. IVF) is in part due to lack of efficient treatment of stallion spermatozoa for capacitation, PAF may be useful to help capacitate stallion spermatozoa. Without proper capacitation, spermatozoa are unable to initiate the acrosome reaction which is a prerequisite for fertilization. / Ph. D.

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In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Beiträge zur Entwicklung neuer qualitativer und quantitativer analytischer Methoden für die Untersuchung von Cetrorelix und anderen GnRH-Antagonisten während des Aggregationsprozesses vorgestellt. Für die qualitative Untersuchung von GnRH-Antagonisten wurden am Modellpeptid Cetrorelix massenspektrometrische Methoden entwickelt und auf weitere GnRH-Antagonisten übertragen. Eingesetzt wurde sowohl die ESI-TOF-MS als auch die MALDI-TOF-MS. Beide massenspektrometrische Verfahren zeigten für die untersuchten GnRH-Antagonisten polydisperse Verteilungen oberhalb der fluoreszenzspektroskopisch bestimmten kritischen Aggregatbildungskonzentration (cac). Bei den ESI-TOF-MS-Messungen konnte ein stark von Cetrorelix abweichendes Aggregationsverhalten für Ozarelix beobachtet werden. Für die Quantifizierung des Aggregatanteils in Cetrorelix- bzw. Ozarelixproben wurde eine Methode mit der MALDI-TOF-MS etabliert, die Untersuchungen an pharmazeutisch relevanten Peptidhormon-Formulierungen ermöglicht. Systematische Untersuchungen zum Einfluss verschiedener An- und Kationen sowie deren Konzentrationen auf die Cetrorelixaggregation erfolgten mit der Fluoreszenzspektroskopie. Die erhaltenen Ergebnisse ermöglichen eine bessere Charakterisierung der Aggregation und lassen Abschätzungen über das Aggregationsverhalten von Cetrorelix in verschiedenen Medien mit unterschiedlichen Elektrolyten zu. Mit dem Einsatz der Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie war es erstmals möglich, Aggregate von GnRH-Antagonisten visuell darzustellen.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Beiträge zur Entwicklung neuer qualitativer und quantitativer analytischer Methoden für die Untersuchung von Cetrorelix und anderen GnRH-Antagonisten während des Aggregationsprozesses vorgestellt. Für die qualitative Untersuchung von GnRH-Antagonisten wurden am Modellpeptid Cetrorelix massenspektrometrische Methoden entwickelt und auf weitere GnRH-Antagonisten übertragen. Eingesetzt wurde sowohl die ESI-TOF-MS als auch die MALDI-TOF-MS. Beide massenspektrometrische Verfahren zeigten für die untersuchten GnRH-Antagonisten polydisperse Verteilungen oberhalb der fluoreszenzspektroskopisch bestimmten kritischen Aggregatbildungskonzentration (cac). Bei den ESI-TOF-MS-Messungen konnte ein stark von Cetrorelix abweichendes Aggregationsverhalten für Ozarelix beobachtet werden. Für die Quantifizierung des Aggregatanteils in Cetrorelix- bzw. Ozarelixproben wurde eine Methode mit der MALDI-TOF-MS etabliert, die Untersuchungen an pharmazeutisch relevanten Peptidhormon-Formulierungen ermöglicht. Systematische Untersuchungen zum Einfluss verschiedener An- und Kationen sowie deren Konzentrationen auf die Cetrorelixaggregation erfolgten mit der Fluoreszenzspektroskopie. Die erhaltenen Ergebnisse ermöglichen eine bessere Charakterisierung der Aggregation und lassen Abschätzungen über das Aggregationsverhalten von Cetrorelix in verschiedenen Medien mit unterschiedlichen Elektrolyten zu. Mit dem Einsatz der Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie war es erstmals möglich, Aggregate von GnRH-Antagonisten visuell darzustellen.

Bakgrund Förmaksflimmer är en arytmi som uppkommer av att sinusknutan slutar styra hjärtrytmen och impulser initieras istället på flera olika ställen i förmaken. Detta orsakar en snabb och oregelbunden kontraktion med försämrad cirkulation som resultat. Förmaksflimmer är den vanligaste orsaken till stroke och en viktig del i behandlingen av förmaksflimmer är därför att förebygga stroke genom antikoagulerande läkemedel. Warfarin har länge varit förstahandsval, men nya läkemedel, så kallade icke vitamin K antagonist oral antikoagulantia (NOAK) har de senaste åren godkänts som förebyggande behandling vid indikationen förmaksflimmer. Syftet med arbetet var att undersöka effekt, blödningsrisk och kostnad av NOAK som förebyggande behandling av stroke och systemisk emboli hos patienter med förmaksflimmer.  Metod och material Arbetet utfördes som en litteraturstudie där fem kliniska studier från databasen PubMed analyserades. I fyra studier jämfördes de tre faktor Xa-hämmarna apixaban, edoxaban och rivaroxaban, samt trombinhämmaren dabigatran med warfarin. I en studie jämfördes apixaban med Aspirin®.  Resultat Alla NOAK visades reducera risken att drabbas av stroke och emboli minst likvärdigt med warfarin. Dabigatran 150 mg och edoxaban 60 mg visades även vara effektivare än warfarin (RR=0,66; P&lt;0,001, respektive RK=0,79; P&lt;0,001). Apixaban reducerade risken för stroke och systemisk emboli med mer än 50 % i jämförelse med Aspirin® (RK= 0,45; P&lt;0,001). Uppkomst av större blödning var likvärdigt förekommande i jämförelse mellan NOAK och warfarin. Dabigatran 110 mg, edoxaban 30 mg, edoxaban 60 mg och apixaban 5 mg visade på lägre risk för större blödning. Apixaban och Aspirin® visades vara likvärdiga avseende uppkomst av större blödning. Slutsats Icke vitamin K antagonist oral antikoagulantia är effektiva som förebyggande behandling av stroke och emboli hos patienter med förmaksflimmer, med lägre blödningsrisk än warfarin, men till en högre kostnad. / Atrial fibrillation is an arrhythmia characterized by rapid and uncontrolled contraction of the atria. The irregular contractions leads to incomplete circulation, accumulation of blood in the atria and increases the risk of stroke and embolism. An important part in the treatment of atrial fibrillation is to prevent the risk of stroke by use of anticoagulants. The first line treatment is the vitamin K antagonist warfarin. The drug has many side effects such as risk of bleeding, difficulties to adjust the dose and interactions with both drugs and food. In recent years, new drugs, called non vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (NOAC), have been approved as preventive treatment of stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation. These include three factor Xa inhibitors: apixaban, rivaroxaban, and edoxaban, and one thrombin inhibitor: dabigatran. In this study, the efficacy, risk of bleeding and cost of NOAK was investigated for the prevention of stroke and systemic embolism in patients with atrial fibrillation. The study was conducted as a literature study where five clinical trials from the database PubMed was analyzed. In four studies, the three factor Xa inhibitors apixaban, edoxaban and rivaroxaban, and the thrombin inhibitor dabigatran were compared with warfarin. In one study apixaban was compared with Aspirin®. In all studies the prevention of stroke and systemic embolism and risk of bleeding was investigated. All NOAC reduced the risk of stroke and embolism at least equal to warfarin. Dabigatran 150 mg and edoxaban 60 mg was also more effective than warfarin. Apixaban reduced the risk of stroke and systemic embolism with more than 50 % compared with aspirin. The occurrence of major bleeding was similar in comparison of Dabigatran 150 mg, respectively rivaroxaban 20 mg and warfarin. Dabigatran 110 mg, edoxaban 30 mg, edoxaban 60 mg and apixaban 5 mg showed a lower risk of major bleeding than warfarin. Apixaban and Aspirin® appeared to be equivalent regarding the occurrence of major bleeding. Non Vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants are effective in the prevention of stroke and embolism in patients with atrial fibrillation, with lower risk of bleeding than warfarin, but with a higher cost.

<p>The G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important targets in drug discovery. In several cases, the endogenous ligands that activate the GPCRs of pharmaceutical interest are peptides. Unfortunately, peptides are in general not suitable as drugs, since the peptide structure is associated with several disadvantages, such as low oral bioavailability, rapid degradation and low receptor subtype selectivity. Thus, there is a strong need for drug-like nonpeptide ligands to peptide-activated GPCRs. However, to discover nonpeptide ligands that mimic the effect of the endogenous peptide, i.e. peptidomimetics, is a tremendous challenge. In fact, morphine and the related opioids were the only known examples of peptidomimetics before 1995 and these ligands were known long before the native endogenous peptide ligands were discovered. </p><p>The main objective of the work described in this thesis was to design, synthesize and biologically evaluate selective nonpeptide agonists to the peptide-activated GPCR AT₂. The AT₂ receptor belongs to the renin–angiotensin system, where the octapeptide angiotensin II (Ang II) is the major effector peptide. Ang II mediates its effects through the two GPCRs AT₁ and AT₂. The AT₁ receptor is already an established target in the treatment of hypertension. The physiological role of the AT₂ receptor, which is up-regulated in certain pathological conditions, is not fully understood but it seems to include positive effects such as vasodilatation, tissue repair, tissue regeneration and neuronal differentiation. </p><p>In the current investigation we started from the nonpeptide and nonselective (AT₁/ AT₂) compound L-162,313. This ligand is a known AT₁ receptor agonist but its effect on the AT₂ receptor was unknown at the start of this project. We were able to show that it acts as an agonist also at the AT₂ receptor. Furthermore, stepwise synthetic modifications of L-162,313 led to the identification of the first selective nonpeptide AT₂ receptor agonist. Following the discovery of this compound several selective nonpeptide AT₂ receptor agonists were identified. It was also revealed that a minor structural alteration of one of these compounds interconverted the functional activity from agonism to antagonism. The structural requirement for agonism vs antagonism was therefore studied. The functionality switch was suggested, at least partly, to be due to the spatial relationship between the methyleneimidazole group and the isobutyl side chain of the compounds. To further investigate the bioactive conformation(s) of this series of compounds enantiomerically pure analogues with conformationally constrained isobutyl chains were prepared. This study revealed that the direction of the isobutyl side chain determine whether the compounds act as agonists or antagonists at the AT₂ receptor. Further investigations are required to fully elucidate the bioactive conformation(s) of these nonpeptide AT₂ receptor agonists.</p><p>We believe that the selective nonpeptide AT₂ receptor agonists and antagonists identified in this thesis will serve as important research tools in the continuing investigation of the physiological role of the AT₂ receptor. We also believe that these drug-like compounds might provide potential leads in drug discovery processes.</p>

There are currently many opioid agonists available for clinical use as analgesics. However, many of these opioid agonists have notorious side effects including respiratory depression and may lead to addiction and dependence. Problems associated with these opioid agonists are determined to come from their interactions with the mu-opioid receptor. Opioid antagonists, such as naltrexone, have shown to aid in the treatment of opioid addiction. Although naltrexone has high affinity to the mu-opioid receptor, it lacks selectivity. Novel selective mu-opioid receptor antagonists were designed based on the identification of important pharmacophore elements in several known mu-opioid receptor agonists and antagonists. These compounds were synthesized and in vitro biological assays were conducted to determine their affinity to all three opioid receptors. Also, molecular modeling studines were conducted to help visualize the interactions between the mu-opioid receptor and these ligands. Finally, four lead compounds have been identified for further optimization.

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Beiträge zur C/Si-Bioisosterie und zur asymmetrischen Synthese neuer siliciumhaltiger alpha-Aminosäuren geleistet. Im Vordergrund der Untersuchungen stand die Entwicklung neuer präparativer Methoden zur Darstellung siliciumhaltiger Wirkstoffe und die Untersuchung ihrer pharmakologischen Wirksamkeit sowie die Synthese racemischer und enantiomerenreiner siliciumhaltiger alpha-Aminosäuren des beta-(Trimethylsilyl)alanin-Typs. / This work describes contributions to the field of C/Si bioisosterism and to the asymmetric synthesis of novel silicon-containing alpha-amino acids. The aim of these investigations was the development of new preparative methods for the synthesis of silicon-containing drugs and their pharmacological evaluation as well as the synthesis of racemic and enantiomerically pure silicon-containing alpha-amino acids of the beta-(trimethylsilyl)alanine type.

The present work describes the synthesis of sila-venlafaxine, disila-bexarotene, disila-AG-045572 (disila-CMPD1), a series of silicon-based allosteric modulators of muscarinic receptors, and a partial synthesis of sila-gabapentin. Crystal structure data of rac-sila-venlafaxine hydrochloride, (R)-sila-venlafaxine hydrobromide, bexarotene, disila-bexarotene, and disila-AG-045572 (disila-CMPD1) are included. Studies on the biological activities of sila-venlafaxine and of silicon-based allosteric modulators of muscarinic receptors are discussed. The Si-2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl (Si-2,4,6-TMOP) moiety is described as a novel, acid-labile protecting group in organosilicon chemistry. The synthesis of chlorotris(chloromethyl)silane and tris(chloromethyl)methoxysilane is described. / Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Synthese von Sila-Venlafaxin, Disila-Bexaroten, Disila-AG-045572 (Disila-CMPD1), einer Reihe allosterer Modulatoren von Muscarin-Rezeptoren auf Silicium-Basis sowie eine Teilsynthese von Sila-Gabapentin. Kristallstrukturdaten von rac-Sila-Venlafaxin Hydrochlorid, (R)-Sila-Venlafaxin Hydrobromid, Bexaroten, Disila-Bexaroten und Disila-AG-045572 (Disila-CMPD1) sind enthalten. Untersuchungen der biologischen Aktivität von Sila-Venlafaxin und allosterer Modulatoren von Muscarin-Rezeptoren auf Silicium-Basis werden diskutiert. Die Si-2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl-Gruppe (Si-2,4,6-TMOP)wird als neuartige säurelabile Scutzgruppe für die Organosilicium-Chemie beschrieben. Die Synthese von Chlortris(chlormethyl)silan und Tris(chlormethyl)methoxysilan wird ebenfalls beschrieben.