The aim of the study was to investigate whether South African free to air television and radio broadcast audio contains loudness fluctuations that fall outside previously determined limits of listener comfort. This is a relevant aim as consumers often complain about loudness fluctuations in broadcast audio (e.g. “why are the commercials so loud?”). Loudness is an inherently subjective phenomenon that is not only subject to differences in human perception from day to day, but also more specifically by the frequency content, localisation, spatialisation and duration of the audio stimulus. Traditional audio level meters only measure the audio signal or digital samples, and do not take any of these psychoacoustic phenomena into consideration. Broadcast audio has traditionally been regulated by specifying the permitted maximum level (PML) of the signal to avoid overloading the transmitter or over- modulation the broadcast signals. While this is necessary to keep the transmission inside the technical dynamic range of the medium, it does not correspond to the perceived loudness of these signals. With the addition of power dynamic range processing techniques, content producers and broadcasters were now able to raise the average level (and correspondingly the perceived loudness) without affecting the permitted maximum level or the peak level of the signal. Broadcasts were still compliant, but subjectively louder. As this process has not been done uniformly across various stations, and various types of audio, fluctuations occur both between stations, and between different segments on the same station. These fluctuations are the cause of listener complaints. There has been a move in international regulators and broadcasters to make a paradigm shift from peak normalisation to loudness normalisation of broadcast audio content. Limited, to no adoption, of this new paradigm in South African broadcasting is evident. This study provides baseline data of the status quo of South African free to air broadcast audio to investigate whether it contains problematic fluctuations, and therefore whether a move from peak to loudness normalisation could possibly have a positive effect. The study found that generally radio broadcasts suffered from greater and more problematic loudness fluctuations compared to television. Televisions broadcasts differed enough from station to station to cause inter-station loudness fluctuations outside previously determined limits for listener comfort, but not intra-station fluctuations. SABC 2 was found to be the loudest and SABC 3 the softest at this particular testing high-site. Radio broadcasts contained a large proportion of inter-station fluctuations, and while it varied considerably from station to station, each station contains some proportion of intra-station fluctuations. Advertisements were found not to be the loudness programme segment type. It was found that the following segments types were generally the softest to the loudest: talking, advertisements, links (interstitials) and music. Ikwekwezi FM was found to be the loudest station by far, with Lotus FM the softest, with a very wide difference of 13.7LU between their integrated station loudness values. The vast majority of broadcast audio was found to have a loudness range appropriate to the intended platform, but perhaps limited to the range appropriate the lowest common denominator, resulting in signals with high to extreme levels of dynamic compression and peak limiting. The study also provided much greater levels of detail of the nature and extent of all loudness fluctuations, especially for radio loudness data. Additionally, ‘zap testing’ methodology was tested to simulate real-life inter-station fluctuation scenarios, and also found to be an efficient method for extrapolating overall station loudness for a larger set of stations. Finally, the study recommends the paradigm shift from peak to loudness normalisation for all audio content producers and distributors in the country, and suggests the EBU R 128 recommendation as the most viable starting point. / Mini Dissertation (MMus)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Music / Unrestricted

This thesis focuses on a time in the mid-1960s where practice in the studio changed from a formal arena where previously rehearsed songs were recorded, to a playground where sonic possibilities were explored and sound manipulation became normal practice. This abuse of technology and manipulation of reality became part of the creative process in the studio, providing soundscapes that resonated with the counter-cultural ethos of upsetting the established order, and were adopted by the mainstream during the 1967 ‘Summer of Love”. Following a discussion of current literature, practice as research is applied to demonstrate how interaction with historical technology reveals the performative nature of the tacit knowledge that created many of the aural effects under consideration. The research then focuses through the prism of two case studies, “Eight Miles High” recorded by The Byrds in Los Angeles in January 1966, and “Rain”, recorded by The Beatles in London in April 1966. Through re-enactment of these historical recording sessions, I recreate the closed envirnment of the 1960’s recording studio. By interacting with historical technology and following a similar structure to the original sessions, I investigate how the methodology was influenced by collaborative actions, situational awareness and the demarcation of roles. Post session video analysis reveals the flow of decision making as the sessions unfold, and how interaction with the technological constraints recreates ‘forgotten’ techniques that were deemed everyday practice at the time and were vital to the outcome of the soundscapes. The thesis combines theory and practice to develop an understanding of how the engineers interacted with technology (Polanyi, 1966), often abusing the equipment to create manipulated soundscapes (Akrich and Latour, 1992), and how the sessions responded to musicians demanding innovation and experimentation, circumventing the constraints of established networks of practice (Law and Callon, 1986) during the flow of the recording session (Ingold, 2013).

This thesis explores the historical development of the electronic organ via the survey, analysis and comparison of stylistic practices heard in historic recordings. This project establishes that the instrument went through several significant stages of development since its introduction in 1935, which have hitherto been undocumented in scholarly work. As this thesis will show, the changing design of the instrument can be aligned with an evident expansion in the stylistic lexicon of musical arrangement and performance. This aural-based micro-genre of electronic music is rediscovered via a multi-faceted survey model that triangulates the results of transcribed recordings, reconstructive performance on period instruments and practitioner survey. This addresses the typical challenge of historical instrument study: that of defining the degree to which technology shapes musical performance. Chapter One places the instrument within a cultural context via a review of literature. The reason for the instrument’s lack of appeal to musicologists is explained as the result of an image problem: the instrument is often regarded as a dated appliance of home entertainment and exists within a method of practice which aligns more closely to that of jazz than Western art music. By removing stereotypes and establishing the displaced cultural values that the instrument embodies, it is possible to see the true value of the research process. Chapter Two begins to present the findings of the survey by examining some of the earliest recordings made on the Hammond organ. The chapter illustrates how certain design flaws in an instrument that was originally Christopher Stanbury Introduction 6 intended as a low-cost replacement for a pipe organ led to an entirely different trajectory than the inventor’s initial ecclesiastical application. Chapter Three details further updates to the original Hammond design whilst correcting and expanding upon previous definitions of features that are defined in literature. The Lowrey organ is also introduced, along with an illustration of why the unique features and tonal qualities of the instrument resulted in a different approach to musical arrangement and performance. Chapter Four documents the introduction of emulative voicing, whereby instruments of the nineteen seventies and early eighties were designed to imitate the sound of other acoustic instruments. The resultant change in arrangement and performance style is illustrated and compared to the results of previous chapters. Chapter Five details instruments made by the Yamaha Corporation that feature digital synthesis technologies. The vast distance between these instruments and previous models, both in terms of technological profile and resultant performance practice, is illustrated and discussed. Chapter Six provides a summary of the survey findings and reexamines the evident changes in the instrument and performance practice. The nature of the relationship between organist and instrument is discussed, along with a return to some of the literature reviewed in Chapter One. Discrepancies between the conclusions of some authors and those of this thesis are outlined and discussed.

The thesis explores the complex relationship between modern audio technologies and the art of popular music through close scrutiny specific artefacts, a largely neglected area of musicological research. The detailed analyses presented here reveal the ways in which particular analogue and digital audio technologies are used, and how these have tended to shape and inform the musical and sonic characteristics of popular music recordings and related artefacts.

Through its portfolio of practical case studies and its engagement with critical thinking from a range of disciplines, the PhD investigates the following key question: what are the technical, aesthetic and conceptual impacts of using binaural technology to create a soundscape? ‘Using binaural technology’ implies users and users are essentially at the heart of this impact because users mediate the technical and aesthetic aspects of binaural technology and also inherently shape the theoretical ideology of this technology. By analysing users’ interactions with binaural technology from a social constructivist perspective, this thesis gains rich insights into the impact of using binaural technology when creating soundscapes. Chapter One explores sound artists’ and field recordists’ work that use binaural technology for the shared purpose of documenting urban soundwalks. The first case study “Audio Postcards” is also informed by questions drawn from acoustic ecology, socio-political theories on the practices of everyday life and the challenges that arise in finding, recording and preserving ‘soundmarks’. Chapter Two outlines practitioners’ applications of binaural technology to create an intimate connection to an art piece such as theatre director David Rosenberg’s productions. Peter Salvatore Petralia’s concept of headspace is applied to the chapter’s case study: “From Austria To America” to further understand binaural technology’s psychoacoustic effects. Chapter Three studies the impact of social groups who use binaural technology to record classical music performances. Traditional stereo and binaural classical music recording conventions are shaped in a new direction in two case studies: “Point of Audition” and “From Page to Stage”. Questions of ‘fidelity’ also arise from this creative practice. The outcomes of this reflective binaural practice unearth deep layers of understanding. This thesis discovers the impact of binaural technology moves beyond the effect it has on a listener to realise this recording practice also impacts a recordist’s decisions in the field and a sound artist’s creative choices when crafting soundscapes. The beneficial impact of binaural technology including its inconspicuous nature, the ability to imprint an artist’s subjective signature on recordings and its lifelike immersive qualities in playback are revealed through practice and reflection. Representing the real, the role of artist and point of audition are also themes explored throughout each chapter. Ultimately, insights gained are woven together as a means of constructing an original theoretical framework for an under-theorised subject: understanding how social user groups shape the impact of using binaural technology when creating soundscapes.

Loudspeakers are used professionally and for leisure as a device which presents audio information to a listener. Loudspeakers “color” this information in different ways because of different properties, which they inherit from the decisions made in the design process. This study investigated the audibility of phase distortion in loudspeaker systems in ecologically valid environments using different types of program material and levels of group-delay. 13 subjects participated in a listening test, each performing 48 trials across various conditions. Results revealed significant differences in the ability to differentiate between reference and impaired signals based on program material and impairment level. Notably, participants demonstrated better discrimination for simple transient sounds compared to a mixed music recording. These results suggest that phase distortion may be less audible in mixed music reproduction than in click-like sounds. However, findings indicate a lower audible threshold for phase distortion compared to existing literature for click-like stimuli. Overall, while phase distortion may not always be audible, consideration for it can be relevant for achieving high audio quality in loudspeaker systems. These findings hopefully contribute to the understanding of phase distortion's perceptual effects and its implications for audio engineering and consumer electronics design.

Despite software being commonplace in the recording industry today, preconceptions exist regarding the digital equivalents of yesteryears hardware. Whilst studies within the field of cognitive psychology shows that prejudice can influence sense-experience, or how different senses can have influence one another, most studies regarding interface design seem to focus on usability. Since quality of sound arguably is a considerable factor in regards to the success of this type of software, this study intends to investigate whether graphical user interfaces can affect how sound is perceived. An experiment was conducted where participants with the help of a survey had to evaluate the same sounds in relation to two graphical user interfaces designed according to two common designs, in order to see whether any differences could be found. Based on the results, neither the research question could be answered, nor could the null hypothesis be rejected, mostly because of a lack of participants. Despite the many problems, potential and real, as well as the amount of research fields that the study transcends, the study could do well as groundwork for a larger study.

Sound toys are game-like technologies that can be described as playful sonic interactions where the users are given unusual ways to creatively explore and transform synthetic sound. This study investigated the prototyping and evaluation of a new sound toy. The toy was designed to test new possibilities for playful music interactivity and sonic exploration. Inspired by prior sound toy research, the design utilized game data, such as user input and simulated physics, that were mapped to control FM synthesis parameters. As intended by the design, the means of controlling the sonic parameters were not obvious to the users, but the sound synthesis was controlled by the movement and collision of virtual objects. The sound toy was evaluated through User Experience (UX) testing which provided a detailed assessment of the interaction design. In general, respondents associated the toy with puzzle-like interactions found in games. Respondents reported that the interactions were fun, intriguing and accessible. Findings confirmed that the playfulness of the experience and the sense of being in control was not dependent on the users understanding the input mappings to the sonic parameters.

The interactive and non-linear aspects of video games bring forth the problem of repetition.In game sound, dialogue is particularly susceptible to repetition because of our hearing’ssensitivity to human speech. The most common way to avoid repetition in game dialogue isto record multiple takes of every phrase as to have several naturally varied samples, whereasthis study explores the possibility to create these natural variations by manipulation of pitchand/or time of one recorded phrase using a readily available software. A listening test wasconducted where 23 subjects rated the variation, naturalness and artifacts of a recordedspoken phrase where three altered versions manipulated by altering the pitch, timing and bothpitch and timing where compared to the original recording, examining which manipulationtype yielded the most variation while also considering the naturalness and artifacts. Arepeated measures factorial ANOVA and pairwise comparisons showed a significantdifference between all manipulation types regarding the three dependent variables. Theresults show that the pitch manipulated sample had the best compromise between perceivedvariation, naturalness and artifacts, and would therefore be the recommended method forcreating variation of recorded dialogue.

For a long time, the function of the musical score has been to support activity in video games, largely by reinforcing the drama and excitement. Rather than leave the score in the background, this project explores the interaction possibilities of an adaptive video game score using real-time modulation of granular synthesis. This study evaluates a vertically re-orchestrated musical score with elements of the score being played back with granular synthesis. A game level was created where parts of the musical score utilized one granular synthesis stem, the parameters of which were controlled by the player. A user experience study was conducted to evaluate the granular synthesis interaction. The results show a wide array of user responses, opinions, impression and recommendations about how the granular synthesis interaction was musically experienced. Some results show that the granular synthesis stem is regarded as an interactive feature and have a direct relationship to the background music. Other results show that interaction went unnoticed. In most cases, the granular synthesis score was experienced as comparable to a more conventional game score and so, granular synthesis can be seen a new interactive tool for the sounddesigner. The study shows that there is more to be explored regarding musical interactions within games. / <p>For contact with the author or request of videoclips, audio or other resources</p><p>Mail: olliver.andersson@gmail.com</p>