O comportamento das interações hadrônicas para energias de centro de massa superiores a 50 TeV/núcleon é uma fonte importante de incerteza sistemática na interpretação de dados de observatórios de raios cósmicos. Nesta tese, estudamos por meio de simulações de Monte Carlo observáveis dos chuveiros atmosféricos que pudessem ser correlacionados com aspectos dos diferentes modelos destas interações. Especial atenção foi dada à componente muônica que sabidamente é gerada do decaimento de partículas de natureza hadrônica na cascata. A precisão e a acurácia de uma rede esparsa de contadores de múons foram estudadas como função da granularidade da rede de detectores e da área de coleção de suas células. Mostramos, em particular, as diferenças na dependência radial da densidade de múons no plano transversal ao eixo da cascata para os diferentes modelos. Tais diferenças se mostram mais acentuadas na vizinhança do eixo e poderiam ser exploradas experimentalmente com um detector com alcance dinâmico suficiente para evitar saturação da eletrônica. Além disso, por meio de um tratamento fenomenológico, investigamos o impacto no desenvolvimento do chuveiro causado por variações na distribuição de pseudorapidez $dN/d\\eta$ de secundários produzidos na colisão primária. Mostramos que diferentemente de quantidades como seção de choque inelástica, multiplicidade, razão de carga e elasticidade, mudanças em $dN/d\\eta$ que preservem tais quantidades são rapidamente diluídas nas sucessivas camadas de interações posteriores à colisão primária. / The behavior of the hadronic interactions at center of mass energies greater than 50 TeV/nucleon is an important source of systematic uncertainty on interpreting data from cosmic ray observatories. In this thesis, we study through Monte Carlo simulations the atmospheric shower observables that could be correlated with different aspects of these interactions. Special attention was paid to the muonic component that is known to be generated from the decay of hadronic particles. The precision and accuracy of a sparse grid of muon counters were studied as a function of the array granularity and the collection area of its cells. In particular, we studied the differences in the radial dependence of the muon density in the shower plane for different models. These differences are shown to be larger in the vicinity of the shower axis and, therefore, could be explored with a detector of sufficiently large dynamic range as to avoid saturation of its acquisition electronics. In addition, through a phenomenological treatment, we investigated the impact on the shower development caused by variations in the distribution of pseudorapidity $ dN/d\\eta $ of secondaries particles produced in the primary collision. We show that unlike quantities such as inelastic cross section, multiplicity, charge ratio and elasticity, changes in $ dN/d\\eta $ that preserve such quantities are rapidly diluted in successive interaction layers subsequent to the primary collision.

The cosmic rays are the most energetic particles in the universe. Their production, propagation, and detection are objects of studies. Surface detectors aim to identify particles from extensive air showers (EAS) which the result from the cosmic-ray interactions with the atmosphere. Resistive Plate Chambers (RPCs) have shown to be a suitable muon detector to be integrated into the Pierre Auger Observatory. An instrumentation was developed to assembly RPCs in São Carlos (BRA). Data from RPCs already built by our collaborators in Coimbra (POR) were analyzed. The detector efficiency to muons was calculated and is approximately 88%, which is in good agreement with the values quoted in the literature. Direction maps were built to investigate the muon incoming direction and the quantity of matter traversed by the muons. The dependence of the muon flux on the zenith angle was calculated and compared with results from the simulation. A square cosine dependence is expected, though it is seen that the building structure has enough matter to block some of the incident muons and alter the dependence curve. The total muon flux was estimated based on the detector efficiencies and solid angle as 1.6.10−5. mm−2.sr−1. s−1 compared with the literature value of 7.1.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1, which gives an absorption by the building of approximately 77%. / Os raios cósmicos são as partículas mais energéticas do universo. Sua produção, propagação e detecção são objetos de estudos. Os detectores de superfície têm como objetivo identificar partículas dos chuveiros atmosféricos extensos (EAS), o qual é o resultado das interações do raio cósmico com a atmosfera. A Câmaras de Placas Resistivas (RPCs) demonstra ser um detector de múons adequado para ser integrado ao Observatório Pierre Auger. Foi desenvolvida em São Carlos (BRA) uma instrumentação para montagem de RPCs. Dados de RPCs já construídas por nossos colaboradores em Coimbra (POR) foram analisados. A eficiência dos detectores para múons foi calculada como sendo de aproximadamente 88%, o que está de acordo com os valores citados na literatura. Mapas de direção foram construídos para investigar a direção de chegada e a quantidade de matéria atravessada pelos múons. A dependência do fluxo de múons com o ângulo zenital foi comparada com os resultados da simulação. Embora uma dependência com o quadrado do cosseno é esperada, foi constatado que a estrutura do prédio tem matéria suficiente para bloquear parte dos múons incidentes e alterar a curva da dependência. O fluxo total de múons foi estimado baseado nas eficiências do detector e no ângulo sólido é de 1.6.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1. Comparado com o valor da literatura de 7.1.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1 resulta em uma absorção pelo prédio de aproximadamente 77% do fluxo de múons.

Recentemente, o Observatório Pierre Auger tem medido espectro de energia de Raios Cósmicos Ultra Energéticos (Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays - UHECR) (E > 1019 eV) com grande acurácia. No entanto, o estudo de raios cósmicos ultra energéticos na Terra tem uma forte dependência do estudo de sua propagação no Universo. Neste trabalho, abordamos o estudo da propagação de raios cósmicos em diferentes aspectos. Núcleos em alta energia interagem com os campos de radiação no caminho da fonte à Terra. A interação mais importante é a fotodesintegração. Na primeira parte, implementamos de maneira analítica e numérica a solução da razão de fotodesintegração e fizemos uso da solução numérica em um programa de Monte Carlo. Mostramos soluções baseadas na parametrização das seções de choque por uma função Gaussiana e por uma função Lorenztiana. Comparamos nossos resultados com trabalhos prévios da literatura. O seguinte estudo mostrou que sob a hipótese de propagação quase-linear e utilizando várias distribuições de fontes no céu, a latitude do observatório: tem influência no fluxo total medido por um observatório; impõe um limite na capacidade de medida de anisotropia e tem um efeito negligenciável na medida do XMax. No terceiro estudo, um limite superior na integral do fluxo de raios gama em GeV-TeV é usado para obter um limite superior na luminosidade total de UHECR de fontes individuais. A correlação entre o limite superior na integral do fluxo de raios gama e o limite superior na luminosidade total de UHECR é estabelecida através do processo de cascatas de partículas geradas durante a propagação de raios cósmicos nos campos de radiação. / Recently, the Pierre Auger Observatory has measured the energy spectrum of Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECR) (E > 1019 eV) with an unprecedented accuracy. However, the study of ultra-high energy cosmic rays at Earth depends on the models used to describe the propagation of the particle in the Universe. In this work, we present a study of propagation of cosmic rays on different aspects. Nucleus at this high energy interacts with the radiation fields on the way from the source to Earth. The most important interaction is the photodisintegration. In the first part, we implemented analytical, numerical and Monte Carlo simulation solutions for the photodisintegration rate. We show solutions based on parameterizations of the cross-section using Gaussian and Lorenztian functions. We compare our results with previous works. The following study shows that under the assumption of quasi-linear propagation and using several sources distributions of sky, the latitude of the observatory: has influence on the total flux measured by an observatory; imposes a limitation on the capability of measuring an anisotropic sky and has a negligible efect on the Xmax measurement. In the thirdy study, an upper limit on the integral flux of GeV-TeV gamma-rays is used to extract the upper limit on the total UHECR luminosity of individual sources. The correlation between upper limit on the integral GeV-TeV gamma-rays flux and upper limit on the UHECR luminosity is established through the cascading process that takes place during propagation of the cosmic-rays in the background radiation fields.

Les aérosols atmosphériques à l'Observatoire Pierre Auger : caractérisation et effet sur l'estimation de l'énergie des rayons cosmiques d'ultra-haute énergie.L'Observatoire Pierre Auger, situé dans la province de Mendoza en Argentine, réalise actuellement de grandes avancées dans la connaissance de la nature et de l'origine des rayons cosmiques d'ultra-haute énergie. Utilisant une technique de détection hybride, basée sur des détecteurs de surface et des télescopes de fluorescence, il fournit une large statistique, une bonne résolution en énergie, et un contrôle solide des incertitudes systématiques.L'un des principaux défis pour la technique de détection par fluorescence est la compréhension de l'atmosphère, utilisée comme un calorimètre géant. Afin de réduire autant que possible les incertitudes systématiques sur les mesures par fluorescence, la Collaboration Auger a développé un important programme de suivi de l'atmosphère. Le but de ce travail est d'améliorer notre compréhension sur les aérosols atmosphériques, ainsi que leur effet sur la propagation de la lumière de fluorescence.En utilisant un modèle de rétrotrajectographie des masses d'air, il a été montré que les nuits pauvres en aérosols ont des masses d'air provenant plus directement de l'Océan Pacifique. Pour la première fois, l'effet de la taille des aérosols sur la propagation de la lumière a été estimé. En effet, selon l'approche Ramsauer, les gros aérosols ont le plus grand effet sur la diffusion de la lumière. Ainsi, la dépendance en taille a été ajoutée aux paramétrisations décrivant la diffusion de la lumière et utilisée par la Collaboration Auger. Une surestimation systématique de l'énergie et du maximum de développement de la gerbe Xmax est observé.Enfin, une méthode basée sur les tirs laser très incliné produit par le laser central d'Auger a été développée pour estimer la taille des aérosols. Des tailles d'aérosols jusque là jamais détectées à l'Observatoire Pierre Auger peuvent à présent être contraintes. De premiers résultats montrent une population d'aérosols de grande taille en utilisant des tirs laser effectués dans le passé. / Atmospheric aerosols at the Pierre Auger Observatory: characterization and effect on the energy estimation for ultra-high energy cosmic rays.The Pierre Auger Observatory, located in the Province of Mendoza in Argentina, is making good progress in understanding the nature and origin of the ultra-high energy cosmic rays. Using a hybrid detection technique, based on surface detectors and fluorescence telescopes, it provides large statistics, good mass and energy resolution, and solid control of systematic uncertainties.One of the main challenges for the fluorescence detection technique is the understanding of the atmosphere, used as a giant calorimeter. To minimize as much as possible the systematic uncertainties in fluorescence measurements, the Auger Collaboration has developed an extensive atmospheric monitoring program. The purpose of this work is to improve our knowledge of the atmospheric aerosols, and their effect on fluorescence light propagation.Using a modelling program computing air mass displacements, it has been shown that nights with low aerosol concentrations have air masses coming much more directly from the Pacific Ocean. For the first time, the effect of the aerosol size on the light propagation has been estimated. Indeed, according to the Ramsauer approach, large aerosols have the largest effect on the light scattering. Thus, the dependence on the aerosol size has been added to the light scattering parameterizations used by the Auger Collaboration. A systematic overestimation of the energy and of the maximum air shower development Xmax is observed.Finally, a method based on the very inclined laser shots fired by the Auger central laser has been developed to estimate the aerosol size. Large aerosol sizes ever estimated at the Pierre Auger Observatory can now be probed. First preliminary results using laser-shot data collected in the past have identified a population of large aerosols.

L‘objectif de la thèse consiste à caractériser expérimentalement sous vide les propriétés d’émission électronique de matériaux utilisés dans des applications spatiales tels que l’argent et l’aluminium dans leur état de contamination naturel, afin de fournir des données précises à la communauté du spatial tout en contribuant à comprendre et quantifier le rôle joué par la contamination naturelle sur leurs propriétés d’émission électronique. Afin de répondre à cet objectif, un moyen expérimental nommé CELESTE permettant de caractériser les différentes propriétés d’émission électronique de ces matériaux sous ultravide a été développé. Il permet d’effectuer des mesures de rendement d’émission électronique ainsi que des mesures de rendement de rétrodiffusion. Afin d’établir un lien entre la physique d’émission bien connue des matériaux purs et la physique d’émission des matériaux d’utilité pratique, un protocole expérimental spécifique a été mis en place. Il permet de caractériser l’évolution du rendement d’émission et de la distribution énergétique des électrons émis à partir d’un matériau exposé à l’air jusqu’à l’élimination par décapage ionique successifs de tous les contaminants déposés à la surface. Une corrélation a été établie entre évolution du rendement d’émission et évolution de la composition de la surface de l’argent et de l’aluminium. Ce travail a permis de mettre en évidence l’influence prépondérante des contaminants naturels sur leurs propriétés d’émission électronique. En effet, les propriétés d’émission de ces deux matériaux exposés à l’air dépendent d’avantage de la nature de la couche de contamination déposée à la surface que du matériau pur sous-jacent. / The aim of this study is to provide accurate data on electronic emission properties of technical materials used in spacecraft applications such as silver and aluminium and to understand and to quantify the effect of natural contamination on their electron emission properties.In order to reach this goal, an experimental facility named CELESTE allowing electronic emission properties characterization under ultra-high vacuum had been developed. The facility can be used to perform electron emission yield measurements and also backscattering yield measurements thanks to special experimental setup developed during this phD. To establish a link between the well-known emission physic of pure materials and those of “technical” materials, a specific protocol has been implemented. It allows the study of emission proprieties starting from a sample exposed to ambient atmosphere and reaching a cleaned sample, using Ar ion etching step by step technic.A link has been established between electron emission yield and surface composition evolution of silver and aluminium sample. This work highlights the leading influence of natural contamination on the electron emission proprieties of metals.

Orientador: Lázaro Aurélio Padilha Junior / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-02T09:51:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Nagamine_Gabriel_M.pdf: 6846623 bytes, checksum: 1daab6ac65771517c50786728dfce86e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017 / Resumo: Pontos quânticos coloidais (QDs) ternários de CuInS2 (CIS) surgiram como uma alternativa não tóxica, altamente promissora, aos já bem estabelecidos QDs binários de CdX e PbX (X=Se,S). Além de não possuírem metais pesados em sua composição, esses novos materiais apresentam diversas características desejáveis, o que os torna fortes candidatos a serem aplicados em novas tecnologias, tanto em biologia quanto na geração de nova fontes de energia renovável. Além disso, esses QDs apresentam diversas propriedades ópticas que os diferem radicalmente dos QDs binários já conhecidos e ainda são pouco compreendidas. Dentre elas, podemos citar um largo espectro de fotoluminescência (PL), com decaimentos longos e multi-exponenciais e um espectro de absorção pouco definido, com uma longa cauda que vai para o infravermelho. Adicionalmente, esses nanomateriais apresentam um grande Stokes shift, de até 500 meV, cuja origem ainda é desconhecida e amplamente debatida na literatura. Com o intuito de desvendar os mecanismos por trás dessas propriedades distintas, nesse trabalho, realizamos uma série de estudos da sua dinâmica ultrarrápida e de espectroscopia não-linear para revelar a estrutura eletrônica desses QDs. Das medidas de dinâmica ultrarrápida, mostramos uma maneira alternativa de medir-se o tamanho dessas nanopartículas, por meio da sua seção de choque de absorção em 3,1 eV, que seria independente da variabilidade morfológica apresentada por elas. Adicionalmente, fazendo um estudo da dependência das interações multi-éxciton desses QDs com o tamanho, reportamos que esses nanomateriais apresentam interações Coulombianas reduzidas em relação aos QDs binários já conhecidos. Das medidas de espectroscopia não-linear, mostramos a primeira comprovação experimental de que a transição óptica entre os níveis fundamentais da banda de valência e condução é proibida por paridade em partículas esféricas. Além disso, comparando o espectro de absorção de 2 fótons das amostras estudadas com imagens de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (TEM), mostramos que quebras na simetria das funções de onda dos portadores nesses QDs alteram as suas regras de seleção para transições ópticas. Adicionalmente, verificamos que, controlando a composição e tamanho desses QDs, é possível obter seções de choque de 2PA de até 13.500 GM dentro da janela de transparência óptica do tecido do corpo humano / Abstract: Ternary CuInS2 (CIS) Colloidal Quantum Dots (QDs) have emerged as a non-toxic promising alternative to the CdX and PbX (X=Se,S) binary QDs. Besides not having heavy metals on their composition, these new materials show several desirable features, which makes them strong candidates to be applied in new technologies, from biology to the new generation of renewable energy sources. Furthermore, these QDs present various optical properties that radically differs from the already well studied binary QDs and yet are not well understood. Among them, we can cite a large photoluminescence (PL) spectra, with long and multi-exponential decays and a poorly defined absorption spectra, with a long infrared tail. Additionally, these nanomaterials present large Stokes shift, up to 500 meV, whose origin is still not well understood and largely debated on the literature. To reveal the mechanism behind these distinguished properties, here, we perform a series of ultrafast spectroscopy and non-linear spectroscopy studies to reveal the electronic band structure of these QDs. From the ultrafast dynamics measurements, we show an alternative way to measure the size of these nanoparticles, through their absorption cross section in 3,1 eV, which would be independent from the morphologic variability presented by them. Additionally, by performing studies of the size dependent multi-exciton interactions, we report that these kind of nanomaterials present reduced Coulombic interactions in relation to de already known binary QDs. From the non-linear spectroscopy measurements, we show the first experimental confirmation that the optical transition between the electron and hole ground state are parity forbidden in the spherical particles. In addition, comparing the two-photon absorption (2PA) spectra of the studied samples with their transmission electron microscopy images, we show that symmetry breaking of the electronic wave functions in these QDs change their optical transition selection rules. Additionally, we verify that, by controlling the size and composition of these QDs, it is possible to obtain 2PA cross section as high as 13,500 GM inside the transparency window of the human tissue / Mestrado / Física / Mestre em Física / 1547612/2015 / 13/16911-2 / CAPES / FAPESP

Hintergrund: Ein sehr häufig in der nuklearmedizinischen Diagnostik genutztes Radionuklid ist 99mTc. Es emittiert Gammastrahlung mit einer relativ niedrigen Energie (140 keV) und hat eine kurze Halbwertszeit von 6 h. Zusätzlich zur Gammastrahlung entstehen bei jedem Zerfall von 99mTc Auger-Elektronen. Diese niederenergetischen Elektronen, sehr kurzer Reichweite verfügen über einen hohen LET und erzeugen somit eine ausreichende Energiedeposition, um direkte DSB zu erzeugen. Bei Untersuchungen zu Chemotoxizität und Radiotoxizität mit Zellexperimenten gilt es eine Vielzahl an verschiedenen Schutzmechanismen, Reparaturmechanismen und Signalkaskaden in Zellen zu beachten, welche häufig noch nicht vollständig erforscht sind. Um das schädigende Potential von unterschiedlichen Substanzen und Strahlenqualitäten auf die DNA zu untersuchen, wurde ein zellfreies System gewählt. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, neben den Strahlenqualitäten der Alpha-, Beta, Gamma- und Röntgenstrahlung die Auger-Elektronen des 99mTc auf ihr Potential zur Induktion von DNA-Strangbrüchen zu untersuchen. Hierfür stand die Substanz 99mTc-HYNIC-DAPI zur Verfügung, welche 99mTc an das Plasmid binden und somit in direkte DNA-Nähe bringen kann. Material und Methode: Alle Versuche wurden mit dem Plasmid pUC 19, einem künstlich hergestellten, bakteriellen Plasmid mit 2686 Basenpaaren, welches als nackte DNA ohne Proteine vorliegt, durchgeführt. Der Vergleich zwischen bestrahltem Plasmid in Ab- und Anwesenheit des Radikalfängers DMSO gibt Hinweise darauf, ob Strangbrüche direkt induziert oder nach Radikalbildung indirekt erzeugt werden. Bei radikalvermittelter Wirkung verhindert DMSO DNA-Strangbrüche und die ungeschädigte Supercoiled-Plasmid-Konformation bleibt erhalten. Nach Bestrahlung des Plasmids erfolgte der Nachweis von Strangbrüchen mittels Agarose-Gelelektrophorese. Bekommt ein Plasmid Einzel- oder Doppelstrangbrüche, so verändert sich seine Konformation zu einem ringförmigen/open circle (ESB) oder einem linearen Plasmid (DSB). Durch veränderte Laufeigenschaften im Agarosegel sind die verschiedenen Konformationen voneinander trennbar. Nach Anfärben der DNA mit dem Fluoreszenzfarbstoff Ethidiumbromid konnte das fluoreszierende Plasmid fotografiert und die Intensität der Konformationsbanden quantifiziert werden. Ergebnisse: Zuerst wurde die Reproduzierbarkeit der Methodik überprüft und festgestellt, dass eine Korrelation zwischen Plasmidmasse und Fluoreszenzintensität besteht. Anschließend wurde in Vorversuchen gezeigt, dass die Inkubationstemperaturen, pH-Werte und der Radikalfänger DMSO keinen Einfluss auf die Plasmidintegrität haben. Bei Bestrahlung mit Röntgenstrahlung, dem Beta-Strahler 188Re und dem nicht DNA-gebundenen Gamma-Strahler und Auger-Emitter 99mTc konnte mit steigender Dosis eine Zunahme an ESB festgestellt werden. Vergleichsproben mit DMSO zeigten keinen Anstieg von ESB, was auf eine radikalvermittelte 67 DNA-Schädigung mittels Reaktiver Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) hinweist. Ab einer Energiedosis von ca. 80 Gy konnten nach Bestrahlung mit 188Re und 99mTc zusätzlich zu den ESB auch DSB nachgewiesen werden. DMSO konnte in den Vergleichsproben sowohl die ESB als auch die DSB erfolgreich verhindern. Bei einer sehr hohen Dosis ≥ 600 Gy zeigte DMSO Kapazitätsgrenzen und es konnten nicht mehr alle Strangbrüche verhindert werden. Die Bestrahlung mit dem Alpha-Strahler (hoher LET) 223Ra fügte, im Vergleich zu Strahlung mit niedrigem LET, dem Plasmid überproportional viele DSB zu. Einige dieser DSB konnten nicht durch DMSO verhindert werden, was auf einen direkten DNA-Schaden bzw. eine zu hohe Radikaldichte hinweist. Ein noch stärkerer direkter Effekt konnte beobachtet werden, wenn 99mTc über die Substanz 99mTc-HYNIC-DAPI an DNA gebunden wurde. Dabei konnten schon ab einer Energiedosis von 4 Gy DSB erzeugt werden, welche trotz Radikalfänger nicht verhindert werden konnten. Schlussfolgerung: Dieser bei 99mTc-HYNIC-DAPI beobachtete Effekt wird den Auger-Elektronen zugeschrieben. Aufgrund ihrer kurzen Reichweite und ihres hohen LET sind sie in der Lage direkte DSB zu erzeugen, wenn sie DNA-gebunden sind oder sich in geringem Abstand zur DNA befinden. Die Ergebnisse der Experimente weisen auf ein therapeutisches Potential von 99mTc hin. Weitere Untersuchungen müssen zeigen, ob eine Adressierung von 99mTc an die DNA im Zellkern einer intakten Zelle zu verwirklichen ist und ob DNA-gebundenes 99mTc durch die Energie der Auger-Elektronen den Zelltod herbeiführen kann. Im nächsten Schritt sollte die Erforschung von Trägersubstanzen erfolgen, welche es ermöglichen Auger-Emitter spezifisch an die DNA von Tumorzellen zu koppeln. / Introduction and aim of the study: A radionuclide commonly used in diagnostic nuclear medicine is 99mTc. It emits gamma rays with a relatively low energy (140 keV) and has a short half-time (6h). In addition to gamma rays, 99mTc radiates so called Auger-electrons with low energy, low range and high linear energy transfer. Due to the high-LET Auger-electrons have a sufficient energy deposition to induce direct double-strand breaks to the DNA. In these experiments we used plasmid DNA to evaluate damage induced to biological systems by different chemotoxical substances and radionuclides as well as external radiation. By using plasmids instead of cell cultures we avoid lots of unexplored signal pathways in cells and it is possible to quantify chemotoxical and radiation damage to the DNA. Materials and methods: The double-stranded plasmid pUC 19 with 2686 bp is used in all experiments. It is a synthetically produced bacterial plasmid without any proteins. To distinguish between directly and indirectly (radical induced) induced damage we used the radical scavenger DMSO. Indirectly induced damage via reactive oxygen species (ROS) can be prevented by DMSO. The quantification of supercoiled forms, single strand breaks (SSB) and double strand breaks (DSB) was measured by the method of agarose gel electrophoresis. After the electrophoresis, agarose gels are dyed in ethidium bromide and imaged with a ccd-camera using ultraviolet transillumination. The bands of the different plasmid forms were quantified through the FIJI computer program. Results: First of all a correlation between plasmid mass and fluorescence intensity was shown. In a pretrial no damaging effect to the plasmid from incubation temperature, pH-value and radical scavenger DMSO appeared. Afterwards we examined chemotoxical SnCl2, external x-rays, the alpha emitter 223Ra, the beta emitter 188Re, gamma- and Auger-emitter 99mTc and the DNA-bound 99mTc-HYNIC-DAPI. The radical scavenger DMSO was used to differentiate between indirect (radical induced) and direct DNA-damage. All different radiation qualities showed an increasing DNA-damage with increasing energy dose. For the low-LET radiation qualities like chemotoxical SnCl2, external x-rays, the beta emitter 188Re and not DNA-bound 99mTc, DMSO showed the quality to prevent the damage. After the deposition of an energy dose ≥ 600 Gy DMSO showed a limitation in his scavenger capacity. During radiation with high-LET beams like 223Ra or DNA-bound 99mTc-HYNIC-DAPI DMSO showed less or nearly no ability to prevent DNA-damage. A 4 Gy dose of 99mTc-HYNIC-DAPI was able to induce DSB into the plasmid. These DSB could not be prevented by DMSO. The lower ESB:DSB ratio for high-LET beams also displays that direct damage is more likely to create DSB than indirect damage. Conclusion: In conclusion we can say that DNA-bound 99mTc-HYNIC-DAPI was most appropriate to induce DSB via a direct effect. It was impossible to prevent this damage due to adding the 69 radical scavenger DMSO. We attribute this to low range, low-LET Auger-electrons and suppose that it may be possible to use DNA-bound 99mTc for therapeutic purpose. Further research has to show if 99mTc can be targeted to the DNA of intact cells and if suitable tracers can be found to safely target and kill tumor cells.

Près d'un siècle après leur découverte, les rayons cosmiques sont encore sujets à de nombreuses interrogations. À ultra-haute énergie (UHE), leur nature, leur origine et leur mécanisme de production restent encore inconnus malgré les avancées expérimentales. L'observatoire Pierre Auger est actuellement l'expérience incontournable pour tenter de répondre à ces questions. Dans ce contexte, l'étude et la recherche de neutrinos à UHE sont susceptibles d'apporter des informations encore manquantes au puzzle des rayons cosmiques d'ultra-haute énergie, notamment quant à leur mécanisme de production ou leur origine. C'est dans ce cadre que s'inscrit cette thèse, centrée sur la recherche de neutrinos à UHE à l'observatoire Pierre Auger et plus particulièrement sur l'étude des neutrinos arrivant sous l'horizon (i.e. à incidence rasante) et interagissant dans la croûte terrestre. Dans une première partie, le contexte phénoménologique et expérimental dans lequel s'inscrit cette thèse est introduit. Dans une seconde partie, nous présenterons tout d'abord notre étude des incertitudes systématiques sur les modèles d'interactions à UHE des neutrinos et des leptons tau à travers une analyse revisitée des neutrinos tau à incidence rasante. Cette étude s'inscrit dans le cadre de la combinaison des résultats des différents canaux de détection de l'observatoire qui a permis de poser une limite compétitive sur les flux de neutrinos à UHE, au delà de la limite de Waxman et Bahcall. Nous présenterons ensuite notre travail effectué sur les neutrinos électroniques à incidence rasante. Ces derniers engendrent, en interagissant dans la croûte terrestre, des gerbes électromagnétiques souterraines soumises à l'effet LPM (Landau, Pomeranchuk et Migdal) qui entraîne un retard de leur développement et augmente leur probabilité de détection. Une chaîne complète de simulation de ce canal a été développée afin d'évaluer la sensibilité de l'observatoire à ces évènements. Enfin, dans le cadre de propositions d'améliorations de l'observatoire en vue d'accroître ses performances à partir de 2015, nous présentons l'étude que nous avons effectuée sur l'impact d'une nouvelle électronique d'acquisition et de nouveaux modes de déclenchements sur l'efficacité de détection des neutrinos à incidence rasante par les stations du réseau au sol. / Nearly one century after their discovery, cosmic rays are still subject to many questions. In particular at ultra-high energy (UHE) where their nature, origin and production mechanism are still unknown despite numerous experimental advances. The Pierre Auger observatory is currently the key experiment to try to answer these questions. In this context, the search for UHE neutrinos remains a major challenge for astroparticle physics. Their study is likely to bring informations that are still missing to the ultra-high energy cosmic ray puzzle regarding their origin and production mechanism. This thesis focuses on the search for UHE neutrinos at the Pierre Auger observatory and particularly on neutrinos arriving below the horizon (i.e. earth skimming) and interacting in the earth crust. In a first part, the phenomenological and experimental context is introduced. In a second part, we first present our study of systematic uncertainies on interactions models of UHE neutrinos and tau lepton through a revisited analysis of earth skimming tau neutrinos in the context of the combination of the results of the different observatory's detection channels. This combination allowed to put a competitive limit on the UHE neutrinos flux, beyond the Waxman and Bachal limit. We will then show our work on earth skimming electron neutrinos. They produce, by interacting in the earth crust, underground electromagnetic showers subject to the LPM (Landau, Pomeranchuk and Migdal) effet which causes a delay in their development and increaase their detection probability. A complete simulation chain of this channel was developed in order to estimate the sensitivity of the observatory to such events. Finally, in the context of proposals to upgrade the observatory in order to improve its performance beyond 2015, we present the study we have performed about the impact of a new acquisition electronic and new triggers on the earth skimming neutrinos detection efficiency by the stations of the ground array.

The cosmic rays are the most energetic particles in the universe. Their production, propagation, and detection are objects of studies. Surface detectors aim to identify particles from extensive air showers (EAS) which the result from the cosmic-ray interactions with the atmosphere. Resistive Plate Chambers (RPCs) have shown to be a suitable muon detector to be integrated into the Pierre Auger Observatory. An instrumentation was developed to assembly RPCs in São Carlos (BRA). Data from RPCs already built by our collaborators in Coimbra (POR) were analyzed. The detector efficiency to muons was calculated and is approximately 88%, which is in good agreement with the values quoted in the literature. Direction maps were built to investigate the muon incoming direction and the quantity of matter traversed by the muons. The dependence of the muon flux on the zenith angle was calculated and compared with results from the simulation. A square cosine dependence is expected, though it is seen that the building structure has enough matter to block some of the incident muons and alter the dependence curve. The total muon flux was estimated based on the detector efficiencies and solid angle as 1.6.10−5. mm−2.sr−1. s−1 compared with the literature value of 7.1.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1, which gives an absorption by the building of approximately 77%. / Os raios cósmicos são as partículas mais energéticas do universo. Sua produção, propagação e detecção são objetos de estudos. Os detectores de superfície têm como objetivo identificar partículas dos chuveiros atmosféricos extensos (EAS), o qual é o resultado das interações do raio cósmico com a atmosfera. A Câmaras de Placas Resistivas (RPCs) demonstra ser um detector de múons adequado para ser integrado ao Observatório Pierre Auger. Foi desenvolvida em São Carlos (BRA) uma instrumentação para montagem de RPCs. Dados de RPCs já construídas por nossos colaboradores em Coimbra (POR) foram analisados. A eficiência dos detectores para múons foi calculada como sendo de aproximadamente 88%, o que está de acordo com os valores citados na literatura. Mapas de direção foram construídos para investigar a direção de chegada e a quantidade de matéria atravessada pelos múons. A dependência do fluxo de múons com o ângulo zenital foi comparada com os resultados da simulação. Embora uma dependência com o quadrado do cosseno é esperada, foi constatado que a estrutura do prédio tem matéria suficiente para bloquear parte dos múons incidentes e alterar a curva da dependência. O fluxo total de múons foi estimado baseado nas eficiências do detector e no ângulo sólido é de 1.6.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1. Comparado com o valor da literatura de 7.1.10−5 mm−2.sr−1.s−1 resulta em uma absorção pelo prédio de aproximadamente 77% do fluxo de múons.

A determinação da massa de raios cósmicos ultra energéticos é uma questão em aberto devido a flutuação natural da primeira interação e o desconhecimentos da seção de choque para altas energias (E > 1017 eV). Alguns estudos (1) mostraram que modificações sistemáticas das propriedades em interações hadrônicas interfere significativamente no desenvolvimento de chuveiros atmosféricos extensos e, consequentemente, provêm diferentes interpretações para os resultados de raios cósmicos. No limite de altas energias, pode ocorrer a saturação de glúons na superfície nuclear, o que resulta no aumento da seção de choque próton-próton e próton-núcleo em relação ao modelo de Glauber. A seção de choque cresce com a energia e está relacionada com a função de distribuição de probabilidade de encontrar um centro espalhado que é maior no modelo de saturação de glúons. Neste trabalho analisamos a seção de choque próton-ar e núcleo-ar para energias acima de 1018 eV usando a hipótese da saturação de glúons (2). Implementamos a saturação de glúons no modelos de interações hadrônicas de altas energia SIBYLL e estudamos o desenvolvimento do chuveiro atmosférico extenso usando o programa CORSIKA. Comparamos os resultados com a taxa de elongação medida pelo Observatório Pierre Auger. Concluímos mostrando o efeito da saturação de glúons na interpretação na composição da massa de raios cósmicos ultra energéticos. / The determination of the composition of ultra high energy cosmic rays is an open question due to natural fluctuations of the first interaction point and unknow high energy cross sections. Some studies (1) have shown that systematic modifications in the hadronics interaction properties infer significantly in the development of extensive air showers and, consequently, provides different interpretations of cosmic ray results. In high energy limit (E > 1018eV), gluon saturation may occur in the nuclear surface region, so that the cross section proton-proton and proton-nucleus increase more rapidly with incident energy than Glauber theory. The cross section rise with energy is related to the probability distribution function of scattering centers which is larger for gluon saturation models. In this work we analyze the cross section proton-proton and proton-nucleus at energies above 1018 eV using the gluon saturation hypothesis (2). We implemented the gluon saturation physics in the SIBYLL hadronic interaction model and we studied the development of the air shower using the CORSIKA program. Different extrapolation models of high energy interaction with gluon interaction have been implemented in SIBYLL. We compared the simulation results using gluon saturation with the measured elongation rate published by the Pierre Auger Collaborations. We conclude by showing the effect of gluon saturation in the interpretation of cosmic ray by composition.