Recent estimates have revealed that more than 6.5 million olive trees in southern Italy have subdued to the Xylella fastidiosa infection, leading to the devasting Olive Quick Decline Syndrome (OQDS). This epidemic continues to expand, posing a significant threat to global olive oil production. OQDS has already resulted 30-34% reduction in ecosystem services provided by olive orchards and a 28% decline in associated biodiversity. Additionally, OQDS has annihilated productivity and the entire olive oil supply chain, causing considerable economic losses. To counteract the relentless spread of Xylella, Integrated Transmission Management (ITM) strategies are crucial. Reducing one vector per olive tree present in an olive orchard can confine X. fastidiosa within acceptable economic and environmental limits. Thus, monitoring and managing vector populations are crucial to curbing disease transmission. The complex interactions between insects and microorganisms are pivotal in the OQDS scenario. Understanding these interactions can provide insights into novel control strategies, such as disrupting bacterial symbiosis with Aphrophoridae foams, affecting the fitness of vector insects, and potentially reducing X. fastidiosa transmission. To counteract Xylella transmission effectively, biocontrol measures must be incorporated into IPM strategies for olive orchards. However, more than the current arsenal of vector antagonists is required. The entrance into the Europe of Zelus renardii shows promise in biocontrolling Xylella vectors. Furthermore, Z. renardii's ability to manage other olive pests adds to its utility. Zelus renardii's bionomics and its ability to regulate alarm pheromones via Brindley glands is crucial for its effective use in IPM strategies. The formulation of artificial diets for mass-rearing Z. renardii under controlled conditions can pave the way for its inundative release to enhance ITM. These biological and biotechnological control measures have the potential to significantly reduce Philaenus spumarius populations and the infective capacity of Xylella vectors within IPM strategies. This approach can also act preventively and protectively, reducing the risk of future infections and limiting repeated transmissions. Progress has been made in modulating the transmission abilities of Xylella vectors, while the challenge of OQDS and X. fastidiosa remains tricky. The availability of Z. renardii and exploring its capabilities offer a more sustainable and effective approach to managing this disease in olive production.

[EN] The biocontrol agent (BCA) Candida sake CPA-1, has proven to be effective against the pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea, causing agent of grey mold in many fruits. The aim of this Thesis was to develop biocontrol products (BCP), based on this BCA and coating forming agents (CFAs) with good stability and efficacy against fungus infection. Several formulations of CFAs, based on biopolymers (hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch (S), sodium caseinate (NaCas) and pea protein (PP)), combined with surfactants (oleic acid (OA), Span 80 (S80) and Tween 85 (T85)), were obtained and analyzed as to their ability to improve the adherence, survival and efficacy of C. sake on grapes. The functionality of these formulations as coatings was also analyzed with and without yeast cells. Likewise, dry formulations based on low cost CFAs (starch derivatives) and C. sake were obtained by means of fluidized-bed drying and their physical and microbiological stability were studied as a function of product moisture content. The application of C. sake in combination with CFAs permitted an improvement in the initial adherence of the yeast on the surface of grapes and also higher survival rates. The protein-based coatings (NaCas and PP), both with and without surfactants showed the best results, suggesting that these matrices are more adequate supports for the BCA. CFAs also enhanced the efficacy of the BCA efficacy at controlling grey mold with respect to C. sake applied in water. NaCas and PP, and also some of the formulations based on S, exhibited the highest reduction values as regards to the incidence and severity of the infection. When the main properties of the coating forming dispersions and films were analyzed, it could be observed that the type of polymer, more than the presence or type of surfactant, greatly influenced the obtained values. The viability of C. sake on the different matrices was greatly reduced during storage at 25°C. However, protein-based coatings showed slightly higher counts. The coatings formed were not estimated to be tick and so they did not represent a relevant barrier to the gas exchanges of the fruit, although they were sufficient to improve the performance of C. sake as BCA. The physical stability of the different BCPs based on C. sake and starch derivatives (potato starch, pre-gelatinized potato starch and maltodextrins) was ensured below a water activity (aW) of 0.75 at room temperature, since BCPs were in a glassy state. However, the viability of C. sake at 20°C over time was greatly affected by the aW. Thus, whereas an aW ¿ 0.43 caused fast reductions in the viability of the BCA in all of the formulations, an aW ¿ 0.33 better preserved the viability of the yeast. This is a key factor since 0.33 is the aW value of a newly dried product and its moisturizing must be avoided in order to maintain its effectiveness in terms of cell viability. Nevertheless, 20°C was considered a non-adequate temperature since, even at low aW, a remarkable decline in viable cells was observed. However, cold storage of BCPs at 5°C allowed for a very good preservation of viable cells even after 6 months. A BCP based on maltodextrins as the main carrier was the formulation that showed the best potential to formulate C. sake in terms of the cell viability preservation and feasibility of in-field application due to its faster water solubilization. / [ES] El agente de biocontrol (ABC) Candida sake CPA-1 ha demostrado ser efectivo frente al hongo patogénico Botrytis cinerea, el agente causante de la podredumbre gris en muchas frutas. El objetivo de esta Tesis fue el desarrollo de productos de biocontrol (PBC) basados en este ABC y agentes formadores de recubrimiento (AFRs), con una buena estabilidad y efectividad frente a la infección fúngica. Se obtuvieron diversas formulaciones de AFRs, basadas en biopolímeros (hidroxipropilmetilcelulosa (HPMC), almidón de maíz (AM), caseinato sódico (NaCas) y proteína de guisantes (PG)), combinados con tensoactivos (ácido oleico (AO), Span 80 (S80) y Tween 85 (T85)). Todas ellas se analizaron en su capacidad para mejorar la adherencia, supervivencia y eficacia de C. sake en uvas. Se estudio también la funcionalidad de estas formulaciones como recubrimientos con y sin la incorporación de células de la levadura. Asimismo, se obtuvieron formulados secos basados en AFRs de bajo coste (derivados de almidón) y C. sake por secado en lecho fluido y su estabilidad física y microbiológica fue estudiada en función de su contenido en humedad. La aplicación de C. sake en combinación con AFRs permitió una mejora de la adherencia inicial de la levadura en la superficie de uvas y también una mayor supervivencia. Los recubrimientos basados en proteínas (NaCas y PG) con y sin tensoactivos mostraron los mejores resultados, sugiriendo que estas matrices son soportes más adecuados para el ABC. Los AFRs también mejoraron la efectividad del ABC en el control de la podredumbre gris en comparación con C. sake aplicada con agua. NaCas y PG, así como algunas de las formulaciones basadas en AM, dieron lugar a los valores más elevados de reducción de la incidencia y severidad de la infección. Cuando se analizaron las principales propiedades de las dispersiones formadoras de recubrimiento y las películas, se pudo observar que el tipo de polímero, más que la presencia o tipo de tensoactivo, afectó considerablemente los valores obtenidos. La viabilidad de C. sake en las distintas matrices se vio muy afectada durante su almacenamiento a 25°C. Sin embargo, los recubrimientos a base de proteínas mostraron recuentos ligeramente superiores. El espesor estimado de los recubrimientos formados en las uvas fue muy bajo, por lo que éstos no supusieron un efecto barrera relevante para los intercambios de gases de la fruta, aunque fueron suficientes para mejorar la función de C. sake como ABC. La estabilidad física de los diferentes PBCs basados en C. sake y derivados de almidón (almidón de patata, almidón de patata pregelatinizado y maltodextrinas) quedó asegurada a actividades de agua (aW) por debajo de 0.75 a temperatura ambiente, ya que los PBCs se encontraban en estado vítreo. Sin embargo, la viabilidad de C. sake a 25°C durante el tiempo se vio altamente disminuida. Mientras valores de aW ¿ 0.43 causaron rápidas reducciones en la viabilidad del ABC en todas las formulaciones, valores de aW ¿ 0.33 preservaron mejor la viabilidad de la levadura. Esto es un factor clave ya que 0.33 es el valor de aW de los productos recién obtenidos, por lo que su hidratación debe evitarse para mantener su efectividad en términos de viabilidad celular. No obstante, 20°C no fue considerada una temperatura de conservación adecuada ya que, incluso a valores bajos de aW, se observó un marcado descenso en el número de células viables. Por su parte, el almacenamiento en frío a 5°C permitió un muy buen mantenimiento de células viables, incluso tras 6 meses de almacenamiento. El PBC basado en maltodextrinas como soporte principal fue el formulado que mostró el mejor potencial para formular C. sake en términos de mantenimiento de la viabilidad celular y practicidad para su aplicación en campo, debido a su rápida solubilidad en agua. / [CAT] L'agent de biocontrol (ABC) Candida sake CPA-1 ha demostrat s'efectiu enfront del fong patogènic Botrytis cinerea, l'agent causal de la podridura grisa en moltes fruites. L'objectiu d'aquesta Tesi va ser el desenvolupament de productes de biocontrol (PBC) basats en aquest ABC i agents formadors de recobriment (AFRs), amb una bona estabilitat i efectivitat enfront de la infecció fúngica. Es van obtindre diverses formulacions d'AFRs, basades en biopolímers (hidroxipropilmetilcelulosa (HPMC), midó de dacsa (M), caseinat sòdic (NaCas) i proteïna de pésol (PP)), combinats amb tensoactius (acid oleic (AO), Span 80 (S80) i Tween 85 (T85)). Totes elles van ser analitzades en la seua capacitat per a millorar l'adherència, supervivència i eficàcia de C. sake en raïm. La funcionalitat com a recobriments d'aquestes formulacions també va ser estudiada amb i sense la incorporació de cèl·lules del llevat. Tanmateix, es van obtindre formulats secs basats en AFRs de baix cost (derivats de midó) i C. sake per assecat en llit fluiditzat i la seua estabilitat física i microbiològica va ser estudiada en funció del seu contingut en humitat. L'aplicació de C. sake en combinació amb AFRs va permetre una millora de l'adherència inicial del llevat sobre la superfície de raïm i també una major supervivència. Els recobriments basats en proteïnes (NaCas i PP) amb i sense tensoactius van mostrar els millors resultats, suggerint que aquestes matrius són suports més adequats per a l'ABC. Els AFRs també van millorar l'efectivitat de l'ABC en el control de la podridura grisa en comparació amb C. sake aplicada amb aigua. NaCas i PP, així com algunes de les formulacions basades en M, van donar lloc als valors més elevats de reducció de la incidència i severitat de la infecció. Quan les principals propietats de les dispersions formadores de recobriment i pel·lícules van ser analitzades, es va poder observar que el tipus de polímer, més que la presència o tipus de tensoactiu, va afectar considerablement els valors obtinguts. La viabilitat de C. sake en les diferents matrius es va veure molt afectada durant el seu emmagatzemament a 25°C. No obstant això, els recobriments a base de proteïnes van mostrar recomptes lleugerament superiors. La grossària estimada dels recobriments formats en el raïm va ser molt baixa, per la qual cosa aquests no van suposar un efecte barrera rellevant per als intercanvis de gasos de la fruita, encara que van ser suficients per a millorar la funció de C. sake com ABC. L'estabilitat física dels diferents PBCs basats en C. sake i derivats de midó (midó de creïlla, midó de creïlla pregelatinitzat i maltodextrines) va quedar assegurada a activitats d'aigua (aW) per davall de 0.75 a temperatura ambient, ja que els PBCs es trobaven en estat vitri. No obstant això, la viabilitat de C. sake a 25°C durant el temps es va veure altament afectada. Mentre que valors d'aW ¿ 0.43 van causar ràpides reduccions en la viabilitat de l'ABC en totes les formulacions, valors d'aW ¿ 0.33 an preservar millor la viabilitat del llevat. Açò és un factor clau ja que 0.33 és el valor d'aW dels productes acabats d'obtindre, per la qual cosa la seua hidratació ha d'evitar-se per a mantindre la seua efectivitat en termes de viabilitat cel·lular. No obstant això, 20°C va ser considerada una temperatura no adequada ja que, fins i tot a valors d'aW baixos, un marcat descens en el nombre de cèl·lules viables va ser observat. Per la seua banda, l'emmagatzemament en fred a 5°C va permetre un molt bon manteniment de cèl·lules viables, fins i tot després de 6 mesos. El PBC basat en maltodextrines com a suport principal va ser el formulat que va mostrar el millor potencial per a formular C. sake en termes de manteniment de la viabilitat cel·lular i practicitat per a la seua aplicació en camp, degut a la seua ràpida solubilitat en aigua. / Marín Gozalbo, A. (2016). Coating forming agents as carriers of the biocontrol agent Candida sake with antifungal effect against Botrytis cinerea on grapes [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/71678 / TESIS

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Grapevine trunk diseases are a cause of decline and loss of productivity in grapevines at all stages of growth. These diseases are caused by a complex of wood-inhabiting fungi that infect mainly through pruning wounds. The management of these diseases relies on wound protection to prevent infection since there are no eradicative control measures to cure infected vines. There are few or no fungicides registered for grapevine pruning wound protection in most countries, while Trichoderma biocontrol agents are often available. This study aimed at improving grapevine wound protection by Trichoderma (T.) spp. and to gain a better understanding of the factors and mechanisms involved in biocontrol. The effect of pruning time (early or late) and five timings of application of the biocontrol agent after pruning on pruning wound colonisation by T. atroviride and T. harzianum were determined. Chenin blanc and Cabernet Sauvignon vineyards were pruned in July (early) and August (late) of 2011 and 2012, and pruning wounds were treated with suspensions of the Trichoderma spp. at various times (0, 6, 24, 48 and 96 hours) after pruning. Wound colonisation was depended on the physiological state of the vine at pruning for both cultivars. However, for the 2012 season in Chenin blanc, wound colonisation was similarly high for both pruning times, which was attributed to high rainfall and humidity. Application of the biocontrol agents 6 hours after pruning consistently resulted in high wound colonisation by the Trichoderma spp. in both cultivars and pruning times. In both cultivars, pruning wound infection due to natural inoculum was higher in wounds made in late winter than those made earlier. The effect of conidial formulation in nutritional (glucose, yeast extract and urea) and bio-enhancing (chitin and cell free culture filtrates) additives, on pruning wound colonisation by T. atroviride was also investigated. Nutritional additives increased the extent of pruning wound colonisation by T. atroviride compared to the un-amended conidial suspensions in a glass house study. The additives as well as Garrison, a fungicide containing pruning wound paint, and Eco77®, a registered T. harzianum biocontrol product, were tested in field trials for wound protection from infection by Phaeomoniella (Pa.) chlamydospora. In 2011, the pathogen was inoculated a day after pruning and all the Trichoderma spp. treatments similarly reduced Pa. chlamydospora infection by 75% to 90% in Thompson Seedless, while control was less in Chenin blanc and ranged from 40% to 74%. In 2012, the trial was carried out on Chenin blanc only and the pathogen was inoculated at intervals of 1, 3 and 7 days after pruning. Wound protection by the Trichoderma treatments was highest when wounds were inoculated with Pa. chlamydospora seven days after pruning. Two conidial formulations, a culture filtrate made from a chitin based medium and a combination of yeast extract, urea and glucose, consistently enhanced biocontrol efficacy. These formulations reduced Pa. chlamydospora infection to levels similar to those of Garrison. The integration of chemical and biological wound protection could provide both immediate and long term wound protection, but is limited by the sensitivity of the biocontrol agent to fungicides. Benzimidazole resistant Trichoderma strains were generated by gamma irradiation from the wild type isolates of T. atroviride (UST1 and UST2) and T. harzianum (T77). Mutants from UST1 and UST2 were of similar biological fitness as the wild type isolates and retained their in vitro antagonistic activity against grapevine trunk pathogens, while the mutant from T77 had reduced fitness and was not antagonistic to the pathogens. The wild type, UST1, and its mutant were tested alone and in combination with thiophanate methyl and carbendazim, respectively, for their ability to prevent pruning wound infection by Pa. chlamydospora. The combination of the UST1 mutant and carbendazim was the most effective treatment and gave the highest reduction in Pa. chlamydospora infection (70% to 93% control). Grapevine cell cultures were used to compare the response of grapevines to T. atroviride and Eutypa (E.) lata as a first step to determining the importance of Trichoderma-grapevine interactions in pruning wound bio-protection. The expression of genes coding for enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway and pathogenesis related (PR) proteins was profiled over a 48-hour period using quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR. The cell cultures responded to fungal elicitors in a hypersensitive-like response that lead to a decrease in cell viability. Fungal elicitors from both fungi triggered the same genes and caused up-regulation of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), 4 coumaroyl Co-A ligase (CCo-A), stilbene synthase (STS), chitinase class IV (CHIT IV), PR 3 and PR 4, and a down regulation of chalcone synthase (CHS) genes. Higher expression of PAL and CHIT IV in cell cultures treated with the T. atroviride elicitor led to a significantly higher (P < 0.05) total phenolic content and chitinolytic enzyme activity of the cell cultures compared to cell cultures treated with the E. lata elicitor. The response of the cell cultures to the T. atroviride elicitor signifies that the induction of grapevine resistance may be involved in wound bio-protection. The role of secondary metabolites produced by Trichoderma spp. used in pruning wound protection was also investigated. A volatile antimicrobial compound, 6-pentyl α-pyrone (6PP), was isolated and found to be the major secondary metabolite from the T. atroviride (UST1 and UST2) and T. harzianum (T77) isolates. This metabolite was found to inhibit mycelial growth, spore and conidia germination of E. lata, Neofussicocum (N.) australe, N. parvum and Pa. chlamydospora. The production of 6PP was induced when the T. atroviride isolates were grown in a grapevine wood extract medium while for UST1, the 6PP concentration was further doubled when it was co-cultured with N. parvum. Results therefore, indicate that 6PP is involved in the Trichoderma-pathogen interactions on pruning wounds. The results of this study have provided new information in regards to the application of Trichoderma-based pruning wound products. The best time of application proved to be 6 hours post pruning. The formulation of conidial suspensions of Trichoderma spp. with nutritional additives and in protein extracts of the biocontrol agent showed potential in reducing variability of wound bio-protection. However, further research would be necessary to develop commercial products. The application of a fungicide together with Trichoderma spp. in the field holds promise to improve control, but would require further trials for possible commercialisation. This study is the first to report on grapevine host defence genes that are activated by the Trichoderma spp. used in pruning wound protection. Together with the characterisation of the major secondary metabolite produced by these Trichoderma spp., this information aids in understanding the mechanisms involved in the complex interaction between the biocontrol agent, the host and the pathogen. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Wingerdstamsiektes veroorsaak terugsterwing en verlies aan produktiwiteit in wingerdstokke gedurende alle groeifases. Hierdie siektes word veroorsaak deur „n verskeidenheid van hout-koloniserende swamme wat die wingerdstok meestal deur snoeiwonde infekteer. Die bestuur van hierdie siektes is afhanklik van wondbeskerming om infeksie te verhoed, omdat daar geen uitwissende beheermetodes na infeksie bestaan nie. In meeste lande is daar min of geen swamdoders geregistreer vir snoeiwond beskerming, terwyl Trichoderma biobeheer agente gereëld beskikbaar is. Hierdie studie poog om wingerd wondbeskerming deur Trichoderma (T.) spp. te verbeter en „n meer volledige begrip van die faktore en meganismes betrokke by biologiese beheer te ontwikkel. Die effek van die tydsberekening van snoei (vroeg of laat) en vyf behandelingstye van die biobeheer agent na snoei op die kolonisering van snoeiwonde deur T. atroviride en T. harzianum is bepaal. Chenin blanc en Cabernet Sauvignon wingerde is gesnoei gedurende Julie (vroeg) en Augustus (laat) in 2011 en 2012, en snoeiwonde is behandel met Trichoderma spp. suspensies op verskillende tydspunte (0, 6, 24, 48 en 96 ure) na snoei. Wond-kolonisering was afhanklik van die fisiologiese toestand van die wingerdstok gedurende snoei vir albei kultivars. Gedurende die 2012 seisoen was wond-kolonisering ewe hoog vir albei snoeitye op Chenin blanc. Dit is verklaar deur hoë reënval en humiditeit gedurende daardie seisoen. Die aanwending van biobeheer agente 6 ure na snoei het konsekwent hoë kolonisering deur Trichoderma spp. tot gevolg gehad op albei kultivars en albei snoeitye. In albei kultivars is wondinfeksie as gevolg van natuurlike inokulum hoër gewees in wonde gemaak gedurende laat winter as in wonde wat vroeër in die seisoen gemaak is. Die effek van konidia formulasie in voeding (glukose, gisekstrak en urea) en bioverbetering (chitien en sel-vrye kultuurfiltraat) toevoegings op snoeiwond-kolonisering deur T. atroviride is ook ondersoek. Voeding toevoegings het die omvangs van snoeiwond-kolonisering deur T. atroviride vergroot in vergelyking met ongewysigde konidia suspensies gedurende „n glashuis studie. Die toevoegings, sowel as Garrison, „n snoeiwond verf wat „n swamdoder bevat, en Eco77®, „n geregistreerde T. harzianum biobeheer produk, is getoets in veldproewe vir wondbeskerming teen infeksie deur Phaeomoniella (Pa.) chlamydospora. In 2011 is die patogeen geïnokuleer „n dag na snoei en al die Trichoderma spp. behandelings het infeksie verminder met 75% tot 90% op Thompson Seedless. Beheer was minder suksesvol op Chenin blanc, waar slegs 40% tot 74% beheer behaal is. In 2012 is die proef uitgevoer slegs op Chenin blanc en die patogeen is geïnokuleer teen intervalle van 1, 3 en 7 dae na snoei. Wondbeskerming by die Trichoderma behandelinge was die hoogste wanneer wonde sewe dae na snoei geïnokuleer is met Pa. chlamydospora. Twee konidia formulasies, „n kultuurfiltraat wat bestaan het uit „n chitien-gebaseerde medium en „n kombinasie van gisekstrak, urea en glukose het deurlopend die effektiwiteit van biobeheer verbeter. Hierdie formulasies het Pa. chlamydospora infeksie verminder tot soortgelyke vlakke behaal deur Garrison. Die integrasie van chemiese- en biobeheer in wondbeskerming kan onmiddelike en langtermyn wondbeskerming bied, maar is beperk deur die sensitiwiteit van die biobeheer agent teen swamdoders. Benzimidazole-weerstandbiedende Trichoderma isolate is ontwikkel deur gamma-bestraling van die wilde-tipe isolate van T. atroviride (UST1 en UST2) en T. harzianum (T77). Mutante van UST1 en UST2 het soortgelyke biologiese fiksheid getoon as die wilde-tipe en het hul in vitro antagonistiese aktiwiteit teen wingerd stampatogene behou, terwyl die mutant van T77 verminderde fiksheid getoon het en nie meer antagonisties teen patogene was nie. Die wilde-tipe, UST1, en sy mutant is apart en in kombinasie met thiofanaatmetiel en carbendazim, respektiewelik, getoets vir die vermoë om snoeiwonde te beskerm teen Pa. chlamydospora. Die kombinasie van die UST1 mutant met carbendazim was die mees effektiewe behandeling en het die hoogste vermindering in Pa. chlamydospora infeksie gelewer (70 tot 93% beheer). As „n beginpunt om die belang van Trichoderma-wingerd interaksies in snoiewondbeheer te bepaal, is die invloed van T. atroviride en Eutypa (E.) lata op somatiese selkulture van wingerd vergelyk. Die effek van dié behandelings op ensieme in die fenielpropanoïedweg en patogenese-verwante (PR) proteïene is bepaal deur intydse PKR (real time PCR) van die korresponderende gene oor „n 48 uur tydperk. Die swam-afkomstige ontlokkers het „n hipersensitiewe-tipe reaksie in die selkulture ontlok, wat tot „n afname in sellewensvatbaarheid gelei het. Ontlokkers afkomstig van beide swamme het dieselfde gene aangeskakel en het induksie van fenielalanien ammoniak-liase (PAL), 4 kumaroïel Ko-A ligase (CCo-A), stilbeen sintase (STS), chitienase klas IV (CHIT IV), PR 3 en PR 4 veroorsaak en „n onderdrukking in chalkoon sintase (CHS) gene tot gevolg gehad. Hoër uitdrukking van PAL en CHIT IV in selkulture behandel met die T. atroviride ontlokker het gelei tot „n beduidende hoër (P < 0.05) totale fenoolinhoud en chitienolitiese aktiwiteit in selkulture in vergelyking met selkulture wat behandel is met die E. lata ontlokker. Die reaksie van die selkulture op die T. atroviride ontlokker dui daarop dat die induksie van wingerd weerstandbiedenheid betrokke mag wees in wond biobeheer. Die rol van sekondêre metaboliete geproduseer deur Trichoderma spp. wat gebruik word in snoeiwond beheer is ook ondersoek. „n Vlugtige antimikrobiese verbinding, 6-pentiel α-pyroon (6PP) is geïsoleer en bepaal om die hoof sekondêre metaboliet afkomstig vanuit die T. atroviride (UST1 en UST2) en T. harzianum (T77) isolate te wees. Hierdie metaboliet is betrokke by inhibisie van miselium groei, spoor en konidium ontkieming van E. lata, Neofusicoccum (N.) australe, N. parvum en Pa. chlamydospora. Die produksie van 6PP is geïnduseer deur die T. atroviride in wingerd hout ekstrak te kweek. In die geval van UST1, is die 6PP konsenstrasie verdubbel deur die isolaat met saam met N. parvum te kweek. Hierdie resultaat is „n aanduiding dat 6PP betrokke is in die Trichoderma-patogeen interaksie op snoeiwonde. Die resultate van hierdie studie het nuwe inligting met betrekking tot die aanwending van Trichoderma-gebaseerde snoeiwond produkte verskaf. Die beste tyd vir aanwending van sulke produkte was 6 ure na snoei. Die formulasie van konidia suspensies van Trichoderma spp. met voeding toevoegings en in proteïen ekstrakte van die biobeheer agent het potensiaal getoon in die vermindering van variasie in wondbeskerming deur biobeheer agente. Verdere navorsing sal nodig wees om kommersiële produkte te ontwikkel. Die aanwending van „n swamdoder saam met Trichoderma spp. in die wingerd is belowend om beheer te verbeter, maar het meer proewe nodig voor kommersialisering. Hierdie studie is die eerste om wingerd beskerming gene wat deur Trichoderma spp. geaktiveer word aan te meld. Laasgenoemde, saam met die beskrywing van die hoof sekondêre metaboliete wat deur hierdie Trichoderma spp. geproduseer word, dra by tot „n meer volledige begrip van die meganismes betrokke by die komplekse interaksie tussen die biobeheer agent, die gasheer en die patogeen.

Photorhabdus are motile Gram-negative bacteria that have a mutualistic association with entomopathogenic Heterorhabditis nematodes. Nematodes vector the bacteria from one insect host to another, while the bacterial symbiont produces toxins and secondary metabolites that kill that the insect host. In this study, we characterize the bacterial symbiont of Heterorhabditis sonorensis, recently discovered in the Sonoran desert. Biochemical and molecular methods including sequence data from five genes: 16s rDNA, gyrB, recA, gltX, dnaN were considered. Evolutionary relationships of this new Photorhabdus subsp. were inferred considering maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses. We also surveyed for secondary metabolites (SM) produced by this microorganism, considering HPLC and mass spectrometry analyses. SM crude extracts showed activity against the corn ear worm Helicoverpa zea, the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita), the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae, and the fungus Fusarium oxysporum; and were more toxic that those produced by related species. Results from these studies showed that Photorhabdus l. sonorensis' secondary metabolites have potent antagonistic activity against these plant pathogens.

No description available.

Rhodococcus rhodochrous is an aerobic, non- pathogenic ,gram-positive bacterium that is often used in industries as a biocatalyst.R. rhodochrous DAP 96253 is capable of exhibiting contact-independent inhibition of selected fungal pathogens.The use of R. rhodochrous as a potential biocontrol agent against plant and animal fungi was examined.The fungi tested were Botrytis cinerea,Pseudogymnoascus destructans,Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium oxysporum’Cigar Tip’ , Rhizopus stolonifer’D1’ ,and other species isolated from berries.Each species was studied to establish the effect of dose (g/cells) and time of exposure to R. rhodochrous.Antifungal inhibition tests were done with the use of dosing,agar diffusion, frozen fermentation paste and exposed slides.Inhibition was observed with B.cinerea,P.destructans,A.flavus and D1,and reduced sporulation was observed with Cigar Tip. The results varied amongst the type of tests used on each target species.

Aspergillus flavus is the most common causal agent of aflatoxin contamination of food and feed. However, aflatoxin-producing potential varies widely among A. flavus genotypes with many producing no aflatoxins. Some non-aflatoxigenic genotypes are used as biocontrol agents to prevent contamination. Aflatoxin biosynthesis genes are tightly clustered in a highly conserved order. Gene deletions and presence of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in aflatoxin biosynthesis genes are often associated with A. flavus inability to produce aflatoxins. In order to identify mechanisms of non-aflatoxigenicity in non-aflatoxigenic genotypes of value in aflatoxin biocontrol, complete cluster sequences of 35 A. flavus genotypes from Africa and North America were analyzed. Inability of some genotypes to produce aflatoxin resulted from deletion of biosynthesis genes. In other genotypes, non-aflatoxigenicity originated from SNP formation. The process of degeneration differed across the gene cluster; genes involved in early biosynthesis stages were more likely to be deleted while genes involved in later stages displayed high frequencies of SNPs. Comparative analyses of aflatoxin gene clusters provides insight into the diversity of mechanisms of non-aflatoxigenicity in A. flavus genotypes used as biological control agents. The sequences provide resources for both diagnosis of non-aflatoxigenicity and monitoring of biocontrol genotypes during biopesticide manufacture and in the environment.

The success of biocontrol bacteria is often restrained due to their low persistence in the rhizosphere and fluctuations in expression of antagonistic compounds. In the first part of this thesis the ability of the biocontrol agents (BCAs) Pseudomonas brassicacearum DF41 and Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23 to resist grazing by the bacterivorous nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was investigated. We found that both BCAs are capable of killing the nematodes through exposure to toxic metabolites. We discovered that in addition to HCN, pyrrolnitrin (PRN) is a potent nematicide produced by PA23. Unique for a pseudomonad, DF41 was also found to kill the nematodes by forming biofilms on the nematode anterior, causing starvation. Biofilm formation was dependent upon the Gac two-component system and NaCl concentration of the media. Co-culturing these BCAs in the presence of nematodes increased expression of a number of genes associated with biocontrol. We observed elevated exoproduct formation, consistent with our gene expression analysis. The nematicidal activity exhibited by DF41 and PA23 towards C. elegans bodes well for their persistence in the environment. In the second part of this thesis the role of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and the anaerobic regulator ANR in PA23 biocontrol was explored. An hcn mutant was created and in vitro antifungal (AF) assays revealed the involvement of HCN in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum suppression. Addition of glycine promoted both AF activity and HCN production. In addition, HCN was found to be positively regulated by quorum sensing (QS). Besides a phz box, an anr box was identified in the hcnA promoter, suggesting a role for ANR in regulating hcnA. An anr mutant was generated and phenotypic characterization revealed that ANR is a key regulator governing PA23 secondary metabolite production. Through gene expression analysis, ANR was shown to positively regulate phzI/phzR and PhzR negatively regulate anr. Furthermore, expressing anr in trans partially complemented the QS-deficient phenotype with respect to several biocontrol genes and exoproducts. Overall, the global regulator ANR is vital for PA23-mediated biocontrol and a significant overlap exists between the QS and ANR regulons. / October 2016

Fungos filamentosos com capacidade de produzir micotoxinas podem estar presentes em alimentos, desde o cultivo até o produto após industrialização. Devido a isso, estratégias para controlar o crescimento fúngico devem ser investigadas, a fim de evitar o desenvolvimento desses microrganismos, bem como a produção de suas toxinas nos alimentos. Neste trabalho, duas abordagens para o controle de fungos toxigênicos foram avaliadas. A primeira estratégia foi a utilização de bactérias provenientes de diferentes ambientes aquáticos, sendo que 10 linhagens de Bacillus spp. e a linhagem Pseudomonas sp. 4B foram testadas quanto à influência sobre os parâmetros de crescimento (taxas de crescimento micelial, esporulação e germinação de esporos) de fungos toxigênicos (Aspergillus e Penicillium) e formação de micotoxinas. Todas as bactérias foram capazes de inibir o crescimento dos fungos em meio de cultura, apresentando halos de inibição variando de 1,0 até 15,7 mm. Bacillus sp. P11 apresentou resultados mais expressivos em relação às demais linhagens do gênero Bacillus com maiores valores de redução na maioria dos parâmetros de crescimento. Além disso, Bacillus sp. P11 e Pseudomonas sp. 4B apresentaram efeito sobre as taxas de crescimento micelial, esporulação e germinação de esporos, com níveis de redução acima de 43,3, 32,1 e 84,1% respectivamente. Mesmo assim, as demais linhagens também apresentaram resultados satisfatórios sobre esses parâmetros. Estas bactérias também reduziram a síntese de aflatoxina B1 e ocratoxina A em mais de 94 e 63%, respectivamente, quando cultivadas simultaneamente com os fungos produtores de cada micotoxina. Adicionalmente, a capacidade de Bacillus sp. P11 em produzir os lipopeptídeos iturina A (167,9 mg/mL de extrato butanólico) e surfactina (361,9 mg/mL de extrato butanólico) foi confirmada. Estes compostos podem ter contribuído para a atividade antifúngica desta bactéria. A segunda estratégia investigada neste estudo para controlar o desenvolvimento de fungos toxigênicos foi o emprego de nanofibras de poli-ɛ-caprolactona (PCL) incorporadas com cetoconazol e natamicina como material antimicrobiano. Nesta abordagem, as nanofibras foram produzidas pela técnica de eletrofiação e posteriormente caracterizadas e avaliadas quanto ao seu potencial antifúngico. Nanofibras funcionalizadas com cetoconazol ou natamicina apresentaram atividade antifúngica contra os isolados toxigênicos uma vez que zonas de inibição variando de 6 a 44 mm foram observadas. Além disso, as análises de microscopia eletrônica e espectroscopia demonstraram que a incorporação dos antifúngicos não altera de forma expressiva as principais características das nanofibras. Também foi possível verificar a capacidade de liberação controlada dos antifúngicos durante 72 h de contato das nanofibras com diferentes soluções simulantes. Valores próximos a 80 e 45 μg/mL de cetoconazol e natamicina, respectivamente, foram observados em solução de Tween 20 (5%). Portanto, o processo de eletrofiação foi capaz de agregar propriedades antifúngicas às nanofibras de PCL. Os resultados demonstraram que as bactérias e os nanomateriais investigados neste estudo são promissores para o controle de fungos toxigênicos e produção de micotoxinas. / Filamentous fungi that have the potential to produce mycotoxins may be present in food, from cultivation to after industrialization. Therefore, several strategies to control fungal growth must be investigated in order to avoid the development of these microorganisms and the production of their toxins in food. In this work, two approaches to toxigenic fungi control were evaluated. The first one was the use of bacteria from different aquatic environments as biocontrol agents in which 10 Bacillus spp. strains and the Pseudomonas sp. 4B strain were tested in relation to the effect on growth parameters (mycelial growth, sporulation and spore germination rates) of toxigenic fungi (Aspergillus and Penicillium) and mycotoxin formation. All bacteria were able to inhibit the fungal growth in culture medium with inhibition zones ranging from 1.0 to 15.7 mm. It was also observed that Bacillus sp. P11 had better results compared to other Bacillus strains with larger reduction values in most of growth parameters. Furthermore, Bacillus sp. P11 and Pseudomonas sp. 4B exhibited effect on mycelial growth, sporulation and spore germination rates with reduction values above of 43.3, 32.1 and 84.1%, respectively. Even so, the other strains also showed satisfactory results on these parameters. Finally, these bacteria reduced the synthesis of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A at levels above 94 and 63%, respectively, when co-cultivated with each mycotoxin producing fungi. Additionally, the ability of Bacillus sp. P11 to produce lipopeptides such as iturin A (167.9 mg/ml of butanolic extract) and surfactin (361.9 mg/ml of butanolic extract) was confirmed. These compounds may have contributed to antifungal activity of this bacterium. The second investigation of this work in order to control the growth of toxigenic fungi was the use of poly-ε-caprolactone nanofibers incorporated with ketoconazole and natamycin as antimicrobial material. In this approach, nanofibers were produced by the electrospinning technique and subsequently characterized and evaluated for their antifungal potential. Both nanofibers functionalized with ketoconazole and natamycin showed antifungal activity against toxigenic isolates since inhibitory zones ranging from 6 to 44 mm were observed. In addition, scanning electron microscopy and infrared spectroscopy analysis showed that the antifungals incorporation does not change the characteristics of nanofibers. It was also possible to verify the ability of controlled drug release during 72 h of nanofibers contact with different simulants solutions. Values near 80 and 45 μg/ml of ketoconazole and natamycin, respectively, were observed in the solution containing 5% Tween 20. Therefore, the electrospinning process was able to provide antifungal properties to the nanofibers. The results showed that bacteria and nanomaterials investigated in this study are promising for developing control strategies of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxin production.

Bdellovibrionaceae (BD) are unique, predatory, endoparasitic, Gram-negative bacteria. As the world's smallest living hunter they prey on other Gram-negative bacteria giving them potential as biological control agents. Prior to this study, however, there were no reports of BD in New Zealand. The overall aim of this research was to isolate BD from New Zealand sources, characterise them and investigate their potential role as a biological control agent. The history, characteristics, life cycle and mechanism of predation of this organism are reviewed and the possibility of the industrial applications of BD, are discussed. In this study, a halophilic species of BD was isolated from fourteen coastal sea water sites around New Zealand. Thirteen isolates were characterised using proven characterisation techniques including general, microscopic and molecular techniques. It was found that the isolates were taxonomically identical or very closely related to each other and belong to the genus Bacteriovorax. The predation pattern of BD isolates was examined against a group of Gram negative bacteria in solid and liquid media. The predation patterns and efficiencies of the different BD isolates were similar, which confirms that the BD isolates are closely related, are selective in their predation, and prey on some Gram-negative bacteria but not all. The rapid loss of culture viability of BD is well known, but no studies have been reported to date on the survival of pure cultures of BD at different temperatures. The survival rate of BD in dense suspensions at different temperatures without host bacteria was investigated and it was observed that pure BD cultures can be stored with minimal reduction in numbers at temperatures ranging from 4°C to 20°C. However, significant reductions in numbers were observed at -1 8"C, 30°C and 37°C after 13 to 16 days. The effects of the 13 New Zealand BD isolates on the growth of a population of Photobacterium phosphoreum were examined to select the best isolate for in vitro application. All of the isolates tested had considerable reduction effect against P. phosphoreum. Some isolates were more effective than others, despite their taxonomic similarity to each other. The isolate OT2 was selected for further studies based on these results. The in vitro efficacy of BD was assessed against late exponential cultures of a seafood spoilage bacterium, P. phosphoreum, originally isolated from Cod fillets from Denmark. Loglo reductions of P. phosphoreum and some other Gram-negative bacteria ranged from 4.5 to 4.8 after 9 h of incubation at 25OC. BD was effective in reducing the numbers of P. phosphoreum at pH 5.5 to 8.5 and salinity 0.9 to 4.5% (wlv). A significant interaction was observed between the prey and predator concentrations and nutrient concentration. Prey concentrations were observed to be the most vital factor in predation and the most favourable predation conditions were at a prey concentration of -8 loglo colony forming units (CFU)/mL, together with a predator concentration of 3 - 7 loglo plaque forming units (PFU)/mL and a prey : predator ratio of >5.0. The thresholds of the prey and predator concentrations for predation were observed to be 3.7 loglo CFUImL and 3.9 loglo PFUImL, respectively. The trials carried out in this study focused on the efficiency of BD on a pure culture of one organism, P. phosphoreum and not on mixed cultures of Gramnegative spoilage bacteria, the normal condition observed in saltwater fish. There has been very little research in this field and the results of these trials suggest further investigation into the effect of BD on mixed cultures of Gram-negative spoilage organisms is warranted. Since only one isolate of BD (OT2) was examined against only one spoilage bacterium (P. phosphoreum) in liquid medium, the evidence of these findings must be restricted to these particular conditions. Future studies, using a range of BD isolates against a mixture of spoilage and pathogenic organisms in solid medium are warranted. The biopreservation capability of BD in extending the shelf life of king salmon was evaluated. A significant effect was observed at 20°C but not at 10°C. At 20°C the shelf life was extended through extension of the lag phase of growth of the prey bacteria and a reduction in total numbers attained. Sensory evaluation of the salmon product being tested confirmed that the shelf life was extended. However, at 10°C there was no reduction in prey organisms, which suggested that the strain of BD used is ineffective at refrigeration temperatures.