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CHANGES IN BODY IMAGE DURING A RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR WOMEN. There are conflicting results regarding the relationship between exercise and body image. Most research has been cross sectional and cannot determine if dis/satisfaction motivates exercise behaviours or if exercise participation changes dis/satisfaction for better or worse. Also, it has not been established if exercise influences how accurately we estimate our size and how this relates to perception and evaluation of ideals and others. Furthermore, little attention has been directed towards investigating if body image actually changes and it is not clear if exercise plays a therapeutic or detrimental role. The aim of this study was to: a) investigate changes in perceptual and attitudinal body image and changes in body composition during an exercise training programme for women and b) examine the relationship between changes in physical measures and changes in psychological measures. The treatment group (25 females) participated in a 16 week resistance training programme. The control group (n = 12) did not undertake any exercise (above a recreational level). Anthropometric and psychometric tests were administered at 0, 8 and 16 weeks outside pre- and menstrual phases. The results obtained indicated that 1) for both exercise and control groups, there were significant decreases in skinfold thicknesses but no changes in gross measures such as mass, body mass index (BMI), chest-to-waist ratio (CWR) and waist-to-hips ratio (WHR); 2) both groups demonstrated improved size estimation accuracy, less discrepancy between the actual and self-estimated BMI, increased ideal size and a decrease in the perceptual measure of dissatisfaction; 3) both groups increased the sum of regional satisfaction scores; 4) both groups decreased dissatisfaction measured via the Body Shape Questionnaire and 5) similar to other studies, anthropometric variables explain only a small part of the variability in body image. The study demonstrates that body image, measured by a number of instruments, can change. However, improvements in body image cannot be fully explained by exercise participation or changes in body composition. It is possible that desensitisation to exposing the body during repeated measures, perceived social support of the experimenter or even seasonal factors may have contributed to such changes. Exercise is associated with many benefits but is not evident if it has a unique contribution to improved body image health. It cannot be excluded as a potential intervention but should be tailored to individual motivations.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2007. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 75 p. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 48-54).

Past research has demonstrated that there are numerous medical and psychological consequences when a woman with an eating disorder becomes pregnant. There has been a paucity of research, however, examining the attitudes towards pregnancy of women with body image issues/eating disorders and how these attitudes subsequently affect intentions to become pregnant. The present study examines intentions to become pregnant among a sample of women ranging in level of body image concerns using the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) as a framework (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Two hundred and forty-two females from an introductory psychology class completed a questionnaire, including the Eating Disorder Inventory (Garner, 1991) and specific scales targeting the components of the TRA developed for the present study. As expected, all TRA precursors to intentions were positively correlated with intentions to become pregnant, while contrary to predictions, body image was not correlated with intentions. In partial support of the TRA, a multiple regression analysis revealed that, for all participants, the subjective norm of pregnancy and perceived benefits of pregnancy were predictive of intentions to become pregnant. Perceived costs of pregnancy, however, evidenced no ability to predict intentions to become pregnant. Although results failed to support the prediction that those with high body image concerns would indicate a lower intention to become pregnant, significant differences among those with high versus low body image concerns did emerge. Specifically, participants with high body image concerns reported greater perceived costs of pregnancy as well as a greater likelihood of engaging in weight control behaviours during pregnancy. Implications, as well as practical applications of these findings are discussed.

Self-compassion has recently been introduced to Western psychology literature and is defined as a kind, understanding, and nonjudgmental toward oneself (Neff, 2003a). While self-compassion has been conceptualized as a construct that is important to ones overall sense of self, it might also be relevant to more specific self-attitudes, including ones attitude toward the body. Body-related attitudes have received much attention from sport and exercise psychology researchers in kinesiology and it was anticipated that body self-compassion would be relevant to women who exercise, as women often exercise for body-related reasons. The purpose of this study was to explore the meaning of body self-compassion for young adult women who exercise and have experienced a change in their attitude toward their body over time; and to discover the essential structure of the womens experiences. <p>Five women between the ages of 23 and 28 years participated in this study. The women identified themselves as Caucasian and middle-class, were university students, and indicated that they exercised at least four times a week. Each woman participated in an individual interview in which she was asked to describe two instances where she experienced body self-compassion. The womens interviews were analyzed using an empirical phenomenology method (Giorgi, 1985; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003) to identify the components of the womens stories that were essential to their experience of body self-compassion. A follow-up focus group discussion provided the women with the opportunity to offer feedback on the essential structures. Four essential structures emerged from these interviews: appreciating ones unique body, taking ownership of ones body, engaging in less social comparison, and body self-compassion as a dynamic process. A facilitating structure, the importance of others, also emerged. The findings of this study are generally consistent with Neffs (2003a) conceptualization of self-compassion as they reflect Neffs overall description of self-compassion without merely replicating the three components of self-compassion: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. <p>The findings of this study provide support for the exploration of more specific domains of self-compassion, such as the body. This study also makes a significant contribution to the body image literature, which has been criticized for being pathology-oriented and for focusing mainly on appearance-related attitudes (Blood, 2005; Grogan, 2006). This study explored a positive body attitude and highlighted the womens attitudes toward their physical capabilities in addition to their appearance. Further research is needed to develop the body self-compassion construct by exploring the generalizability of the essential structures that emerged in this study to broader populations.

Research continues to suggest that young women experience body image concerns; nevertheless, the majority of this body image research has focused on white women, and the experiences of young Aboriginal women have typically been overlooked. When research has included Aboriginal women, it has generally been quantitative in nature (e.g., Gittelsohn et al., 1996; Marchessault, 2004; Story et al., 1995) and has highlighted body dissatisfaction that is equal to and even greater than that experienced by white women. Despite the alarming statistics suggesting that body image concerns are common among Aboriginal women, few researchers have engaged young Aboriginal women in qualitative research projects that seek to highlight their unique experiences. My previous research with young Aboriginal women (i.e., Fleming et al., 2006; McHugh & Kowalski, in press) are some of the first Canadian studies to have an exclusive focus on Aboriginal womens body image experiences. This research suggested that young Aboriginal womens body image experiences may not be as negative as previous quantitative research has suggested, but highlighted the need to work with young women to develop strategies for positively managing body image experiences. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to engage in a collaborative, school-based participatory action research (PAR) project in partnership with a local high school to provide young women, primarily young Aboriginal women, with an opportunity to manage their body image experiences in an effective manner.<p> Students, teachers, and staff of Nutana Collegiate participated in this project, which took place over a 10-month period from September 2006 to June 2007. All Nutana school members were welcomed to participate and many took part in the various action initiatives that were developed. A group of seven young Aboriginal women formed a core group of participants who were primarily responsible for the development and implementation of most action initiatives. A five phase PAR model, which was based on the work of Stringer and Genat (2004), was proposed as the methodological framework for this project. However, given the emergent and dynamic nature of PAR processes, and the unique features of the school community, the manner in which the project actually unfolded was quite different from the original plan. This project ultimately had two phases, the Relationship Building Phase and the Action Phase.<p> In an effort to develop relationships with school community members, during the Relationship Building phase I engaged in the three general processes of: familiarization, making connections, and giving back to the school. My commitment to these processes supported my initial goal to develop trusting relationships with community members, which subsequently formed a strong foundation for the development of effective and successful action initiatives. Eight action initiatives, which were represented by three themes, were developed and implemented as part of the Action phase. The three themes were: (1) Promoting Positive Body Image Experiences, (2) Self-Expression, and (3) Creating Awareness.<p> The development and implementation of action at various levels (i.e., individual, school, provincial, and national) was the most significant outcome of this research. The success and relevance of the various action initiatives was demonstrated by the words of the participants, the overall support of various school members, and the commitment of the core group to the goals of this PAR project. Although there were methodological challenges and considerations that needed to be navigated throughout this PAR project, findings from this research suggest that universities and local high schools can and should work together to develop school-based body image programs for young Aboriginal women. As well, and maybe most importantly, this research highlights the strength of using PAR methodologies when engaging young Aboriginal women in body image research.

Pediatric overweight is of paramount importance in Kentucky, as studies show prevalence rates are higher in the state than the national average. Research suggests that comprehensive treatments involving diet training, exercise training, and psychological counseling are most effective at reducing overweight in children. Little research has been done, however, to compare parents' and physicians' perceptions of obesity, its treatment, or barriers to weight management. The purpose of this study is to examine differences in attitudes toward pediatric obesity and weight management among parents and physicians, specifically related to the importance of diet training, exercise training, and psychological counseling. Surveys were sent to a population of pediatricians and family practitioners serving pediatric patients in the ten-county Barren River Area Development District of south-central Kentucky and to a convenience sample of 160 parents, identified when they brought their child(ren) to a physician for an office visit. Data were analyzed 1) descriptively and 2) inferentially to test hypotheses. Frequencies and measures of central tendency were conducted on categorical and continuous data. A series of t-tests were conducted at a 95% confidence interval to determine if differences existed between parents and physicians concerning the importance of 1) diet training, 2) exercise training, or 3) psychological counseling to pediatric weight control. Results showed a 42.9% prevalence of overweight among the children of sampled parents. Results also showed that physicians rated the three treatment modalities under study as significantly more important than did parents. Additionally, parents and physicians identified different barriers to the successful treatment of child overweight. While physicians felt child and family adherence issues presented the largest barriers, parents cited cost and self-esteem concerns as larger barriers to pediatric weight management. This study has many public health implications, including potential benefits from awareness efforts and educational training related to the identification of child overweight and the importance of a comprehensive treatment strategy. Additionally, physicians who are aware of parents' concerns related to finances and their child's self-esteem might be able to tailor their educational efforts to address those concerns, thus increasing treatment adherence.

Past research has demonstrated that there are numerous medical and psychological consequences when a woman with an eating disorder becomes pregnant. There has been a paucity of research, however, examining the attitudes towards pregnancy of women with body image issues/eating disorders and how these attitudes subsequently affect intentions to become pregnant. The present study examines intentions to become pregnant among a sample of women ranging in level of body image concerns using the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) as a framework (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Two hundred and forty-two females from an introductory psychology class completed a questionnaire, including the Eating Disorder Inventory (Garner, 1991) and specific scales targeting the components of the TRA developed for the present study. As expected, all TRA precursors to intentions were positively correlated with intentions to become pregnant, while contrary to predictions, body image was not correlated with intentions. In partial support of the TRA, a multiple regression analysis revealed that, for all participants, the subjective norm of pregnancy and perceived benefits of pregnancy were predictive of intentions to become pregnant. Perceived costs of pregnancy, however, evidenced no ability to predict intentions to become pregnant. Although results failed to support the prediction that those with high body image concerns would indicate a lower intention to become pregnant, significant differences among those with high versus low body image concerns did emerge. Specifically, participants with high body image concerns reported greater perceived costs of pregnancy as well as a greater likelihood of engaging in weight control behaviours during pregnancy. Implications, as well as practical applications of these findings are discussed.

Self-compassion has recently been introduced to Western psychology literature and is defined as a kind, understanding, and nonjudgmental toward oneself (Neff, 2003a). While self-compassion has been conceptualized as a construct that is important to ones overall sense of self, it might also be relevant to more specific self-attitudes, including ones attitude toward the body. Body-related attitudes have received much attention from sport and exercise psychology researchers in kinesiology and it was anticipated that body self-compassion would be relevant to women who exercise, as women often exercise for body-related reasons. The purpose of this study was to explore the meaning of body self-compassion for young adult women who exercise and have experienced a change in their attitude toward their body over time; and to discover the essential structure of the womens experiences. <p>Five women between the ages of 23 and 28 years participated in this study. The women identified themselves as Caucasian and middle-class, were university students, and indicated that they exercised at least four times a week. Each woman participated in an individual interview in which she was asked to describe two instances where she experienced body self-compassion. The womens interviews were analyzed using an empirical phenomenology method (Giorgi, 1985; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003) to identify the components of the womens stories that were essential to their experience of body self-compassion. A follow-up focus group discussion provided the women with the opportunity to offer feedback on the essential structures. Four essential structures emerged from these interviews: appreciating ones unique body, taking ownership of ones body, engaging in less social comparison, and body self-compassion as a dynamic process. A facilitating structure, the importance of others, also emerged. The findings of this study are generally consistent with Neffs (2003a) conceptualization of self-compassion as they reflect Neffs overall description of self-compassion without merely replicating the three components of self-compassion: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. <p>The findings of this study provide support for the exploration of more specific domains of self-compassion, such as the body. This study also makes a significant contribution to the body image literature, which has been criticized for being pathology-oriented and for focusing mainly on appearance-related attitudes (Blood, 2005; Grogan, 2006). This study explored a positive body attitude and highlighted the womens attitudes toward their physical capabilities in addition to their appearance. Further research is needed to develop the body self-compassion construct by exploring the generalizability of the essential structures that emerged in this study to broader populations.

Research continues to suggest that young women experience body image concerns; nevertheless, the majority of this body image research has focused on white women, and the experiences of young Aboriginal women have typically been overlooked. When research has included Aboriginal women, it has generally been quantitative in nature (e.g., Gittelsohn et al., 1996; Marchessault, 2004; Story et al., 1995) and has highlighted body dissatisfaction that is equal to and even greater than that experienced by white women. Despite the alarming statistics suggesting that body image concerns are common among Aboriginal women, few researchers have engaged young Aboriginal women in qualitative research projects that seek to highlight their unique experiences. My previous research with young Aboriginal women (i.e., Fleming et al., 2006; McHugh & Kowalski, in press) are some of the first Canadian studies to have an exclusive focus on Aboriginal womens body image experiences. This research suggested that young Aboriginal womens body image experiences may not be as negative as previous quantitative research has suggested, but highlighted the need to work with young women to develop strategies for positively managing body image experiences. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to engage in a collaborative, school-based participatory action research (PAR) project in partnership with a local high school to provide young women, primarily young Aboriginal women, with an opportunity to manage their body image experiences in an effective manner.<p> Students, teachers, and staff of Nutana Collegiate participated in this project, which took place over a 10-month period from September 2006 to June 2007. All Nutana school members were welcomed to participate and many took part in the various action initiatives that were developed. A group of seven young Aboriginal women formed a core group of participants who were primarily responsible for the development and implementation of most action initiatives. A five phase PAR model, which was based on the work of Stringer and Genat (2004), was proposed as the methodological framework for this project. However, given the emergent and dynamic nature of PAR processes, and the unique features of the school community, the manner in which the project actually unfolded was quite different from the original plan. This project ultimately had two phases, the Relationship Building Phase and the Action Phase.<p> In an effort to develop relationships with school community members, during the Relationship Building phase I engaged in the three general processes of: familiarization, making connections, and giving back to the school. My commitment to these processes supported my initial goal to develop trusting relationships with community members, which subsequently formed a strong foundation for the development of effective and successful action initiatives. Eight action initiatives, which were represented by three themes, were developed and implemented as part of the Action phase. The three themes were: (1) Promoting Positive Body Image Experiences, (2) Self-Expression, and (3) Creating Awareness.<p> The development and implementation of action at various levels (i.e., individual, school, provincial, and national) was the most significant outcome of this research. The success and relevance of the various action initiatives was demonstrated by the words of the participants, the overall support of various school members, and the commitment of the core group to the goals of this PAR project. Although there were methodological challenges and considerations that needed to be navigated throughout this PAR project, findings from this research suggest that universities and local high schools can and should work together to develop school-based body image programs for young Aboriginal women. As well, and maybe most importantly, this research highlights the strength of using PAR methodologies when engaging young Aboriginal women in body image research.