The Sandwich Plate System (SPS) is created by bonding two steel plates together with an elastomer core that is injected into a cavity formed by the steel plates and perimeter bars. The result is a stiffer and lighter panel that can be used for plate-like structures such as bridge decks, stadium risers or ship decks. For more versatility, the effects of welding post-injection to the SPS panels were investigated. Three post-injection welded joints were tested to determine fatigue resistance and the effects of cyclic loading on the localized debonding of the heat affected zone at the post-injection welded joint of a SPS bridge deck. Seven panels containing one of three post-injection weld configurations were investigated. Each panel was fatigue tested to ten million cycles or until failure, by applying remote bending to the post-injection welded joint. Experimental deflections and strains were compared to finite element analyses. Fatigue-life predictions were made using code based S-N curves, and a relatively new mesh-insensitive structural stress method with a master S-N curve approach. The post-injection welded joint demonstrated good fatigue resistance to recommended AASHTO loading when shims were used under the middle support to offset the camber in the SPS panels. It was also found that stresses caused by draw down of the camber had an adverse affect on the post-injection welded joint and greatly reduced its fatigue resistance. / Master of Science

Two different asphalt concrete systems were examined in this research study. The existing system, consistent with current timber bridge construction practice, uses a preformed waterproofing membrane placed on a preservative treated wood deck overlaid with a bituminous concrete wearing surface. The second system consists of a treated wood deck overlaid with a base course of bituminous concrete, a waterproofing membrane, and a bituminous concrete wearing surface. The testing regime used in this research to evaluate watertightness and bond performance incorporated three parameters: three waterproofing membranes, two wood preservative treatments, and two environmental degradation conditions induced by temperature cycling in a moisture saturated condition. Control groups were evaluated for each study parameter and duplicate specimens were prepared and tested for each of the study parameters. A total of 160 specimens were constructed and tested. Watertightness of each system was determined by measuring the electrical impedance across a test specimen perpendicular to the direction of bond orientation in the pavement. The bond strength between each material of the paving systems was assessed using a shear test apparatus designed and built for this study. In addition to the laboratory constructed specimens, three drilled cores were taken from a bridge located on Creekside Drive in East Pennsboro Township, Pennsylvania. The deck was constructed using the new design proposed in this research and each core was tested for watertightness and bond strength. Results of watertightness testing indicated that low temperature environments appear to be most detrimental to system integrity in both the existing and proposed paving system configurations examined in this research. In general, each membrane appeared to perform equally well in the proposed paving system configuration as well as with all of the wood preservative treatments used in the existing pavement system. Bond strength between asphalt and wood with no membrane was observed to be nonexistent whether or not any preservative treatment was present. The placement of a membrane between these two layers did, however, result in a significant increase in bond strength because each membrane tested was able to adhere to the wood base better than the asphalt overlay. This gain is strength was significantly offset when petroleum solvent based preservative treatments were present in the wood substrate. Protectowrap M400 membrane performed slightly better than the other membranes when used with untreated wood, but all of the membranes performed equally when preservative treatments were present. The highest interlayer bond strengths (asphalt/asphalt or asphalt/wood) observed in this research occurred when asphalt concrete surface material was placed directly on top of asphalt concrete base material, however the addition of a membrane between the asphalt lifts consistently reduced this strength. The results of bond testing indicate that the proposed system will perform better in terms of shoving in the pavement overlay. Based on bond test results of cores taken from the Creekside Drive bridge, it appears that a shear strength greater than 25 psi after 200 low temperature exposure cycles will provide acceptable paving system performance in a low temperature (0-40ºF) environment. / Master of Science

This study is an evaluation of epoxy coated reinforcing steel (ECR) and its ability to effectively provide corrosion protection in reinforced concrete highway bridge decks. An analysis was conducted on 10 bridge decks built in the state of Virginia between the years 1981 and 1995. A total of 141 cores containing either ECR or bare steel were evaluated. A chloride solution was applied to the surface on a weekly cycle (for a total duration of 3.06 years) and a nondestructive electrochemical testing was performed on each core on a monthly cycle. Cores were also inspected for surface cracks, the thermal properties of the epoxy coating, and the concrete conditions at bar depth. The concrete was tested for saturation percentages, diffusion coefficients, and chloride contents, while the epoxy was tested for its glass transition temperature, moisture content, and amount of surface cracking. The results indicate that the best predictor for estimating the times to corrosion initiation and cracking is the amount of chlorides present in the concrete encasing the ECR. The presence of chloride ions will have a determining effect on corrosion regardless of the epoxy coating condition. As a result, it is likely that ECR is not the solution to corrosion prevention and it is recommended that closer attention be given to improving concrete conditions that reduce the diffusion of chloride ions. The conclusion that ECR is an unreliable corrosion prevention method is in agreement with the results of previous studies. / Master of Science

An innovative approach to possible construction or rehabilitation of bridge decks can be found in a bridge construction system called the Sandwich Plate System (SPS). The technology developed and patented by Intelligent Engineering Canada Limited in conjunction with an industry partner, Elastogran GmbH, a member of BASF, may be an effective alternative to traditional bridge rehabilitation techniques. Although the system's behavior has been studied the connection of the SPS deck to the supporting girders has not been investigated. Two types of connection are presented in this research. The use of a bent plate welded to the SPS deck and subsequently bolted to the supporting girder utilizing slip-critical connections has been utilized in the construction of a SPS bridge. A proposed SPS bridge system utilizes the top flange of the supporting girder welded directly to the SPS deck as the deck-to-girder connection. The fatigue performance of a deck-to-girder connection utilizing a bent plate welded to the deck and bolted to the supporting girder using slip-critical connections was tested in the Virginia Tech Materials and Structures Laboratory. The testing concluded that the fatigue performance of the welded and bolted bent plate connection was limited by the weld details and no slip occurred in the slip-critical connections. Finite element modeling of the two types of deck-to-girder connections was also used to determine influence of the connections on the local and global behavior of a SPS bridge system. A comparison of the different connection details showed that the connection utilizing the flange welded directly to the SPS deck significantly reduces the stresses at location of the welds in the connections, but the connection type has a limited influence on the global behavior of a SPS bridge. / Master of Science

Modeling of chloride-induced deterioration of bridge decks by using Fick's Second Law of diffusion was performed. The objective of this study is to select suitable input parameters for the model to estimate the service life of bridge decks. Five bridge decks, one in each of the following states, Virginia, Florida, New Jersey, New York, and Minnesota were evaluated. Data collection process involved visual inspections, damage surveys, corrosion testing including continuity, one-point resistivity, four-point resistivity, half-cell potentials, and three-electrode linear polarization, reinforcement cover depths, chloride samples. The Virginia bridge deck was built with epoxy-coated reinforcement as top reinforcement mat and black bar as the bottom mat. The Florida bridge is a segmental prestressed box girder structure built with black bar. The New Jersey bridge deck was overlaid with latex modified concrete. The New York bridge deck, which was built in 1990, is six inch concrete topping over prestressed adjacent box beams structure with epoxy-coated bar in the negative moment area. The Minnesota bridge was rebuilt in 1984. The deck was rebuilt with epoxy coated reinforcing steel in the top and bottom mats. The probabilistic Fickian model requires reinforcement cover depths, surface chloride concentration, chloride initiation concentration, and diffusion coefficients as input parameters. The chloride initiation concentration was input via parametric bootstrapping, while the other parameters were input as simple bootstrapping. Chloride initiation concentration was determined from the chloride concentration at the reinforcement bar depths. The modeling results showed that the deterioration of the Virginia bridge deck was corrosion controlled and the bridge will undergo increasingly severe damage in the future. Florida bridge deck is not undergoing corrosion and will not experience corrosion damage within 100 years. New Jersey bridge deck's service life has been most likely extended by the overlay. Deterioration of the New York bridge was not corrosion controlled, but was related to longitudinal cracking of the topping at match lines of adjacent box beams. Minnesota bridge deck is delaminated and contained a large number of cracks that should be included in service life modeling; otherwise the service life estimate is underestimated. In addition to service life corrosion performance modeling, analyses were conducted on the relationships and interrelations of resistivity, corrosion potential, corrosion current and chloride at the reinforcing bar depth. / Ph. D.

The primary objective of this research was to investigate the shear strength of concrete bridge decks with GFRP top-mat reinforcement. Several models currently exist to predict the shear strength during the design process; however, previous research at Virginia Tech indicates that the existing equations are overly conservative. For this research, a series of concrete decks with varying lengths were tested in a laboratory environment in a two-span continuous configuration, during which data was collected on deflections, rebar strain, crack widths, and ultimate load. It was concluded that the existing equations, particularly the guidelines of ACI 440, are grossly over-conservative for GFRP-reinforced concrete bridge decks continuous over multiple supports. It was suggested that this is due to multiple factors, including additional support provided by the typically-neglected steel reinforcement in the bottom mat and a higher shear strength of the uncracked portion of concrete due to higher compressive stresses in the section as a result of the continuous deck configuration. The second objective of this research was to investigate the effects of environmental exposure on the composite deck and the individual GFRP rebar. Three deck specimens were subjected to differing environmental conditions, including one that was placed into service at an interstate weigh station. All three decks were tested in the same manner as those in the shear investigation. Additionally, live load tests were conducted on the weigh station deck during the time it was in place and tensile tests were conducted on rebar that were extracted from the concrete decks. In the live load testing, the GFRP strains increased by more than 200% over the period of service, which was likely due to a combination of a reduction in GFRP stiffness and a greater amount of cracking. During the laboratory tests on the decks, no clear correlation between conditioning and deflections or cracking was found. The ultimate strength actually increased with conditioning, with the weigh station specimen exhibiting the highest shear strength. Finally, the results of the rebar tensile tests suggested a decrease in both modulus of elasticity and ultimate tensile strength of the GFRP with environmental exposure when compared to unconditioned bars. / Master of Science

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effectiveness and durability of GFRP bars as reinforcement for concrete decks. Today's rapid bridge deck deterioration is calling for a replacement for steel reinforcement. The advantages of GFRP such as its high tensile strength, light weight, and resistance to corrosion make it an attractive alternative to steel. The first objective of this research was to perform live load testing on a bridge deck reinforced with GFRP in one span and steel in the other. The results were compared to the findings from the initial testing performed one year earlier. The strains and deflections of the bridge deck were recorded and the two spans compared. Transverse stresses in the GFRP bars, girder distribution factors, and dynamic load allowances were calculated for both spans. From the live load tests, it was concluded that the GFRP-reinforced span results were within design parameters. The only concern was the increased impact factor values. The second objective was to perform live load tests on a slab reinforced with GFRP installed at a weigh station. Two live load tests were performed approximately five months apart. Peak strains in the GFRP and steel bars were recorded and compared. The peak stresses had increased over time but were within design allowable stress limits. The third objective of this research was to investigate the long term behavior and durability of the GFRP reinforcing bars cast in a concrete deck. The strain gauges, vibrating wire gauges, and thermocouples in the bridge deck were monitored for approximately one year using a permanent data acquisition system. Daily, monthly, and long term fluctuations in temperature and stresses were examined. It was concluded that the vibrating wire gauges were more reliable than the electrical resistance strain gauges. It was further observed that the main influence over strain changes was temperature fluctuations. / Master of Science

Nesta dissertação é tratado o emprego de elementos pré-moldados em tabuleiros de pontes com até 30 metros de vão. São apresentadas recomendações para elaboração de projeto com ênfase para dois pontos: a) apresentação dos diversos tipos de elementos pré-moldados, seus vãos econômicos e as ligações entre os mesmos e b) apresentação do método da grelha e as considerações que se fazem necessárias para o seu emprego adequado em tabuleiros de pontes formados por elementos pré-moldados. São apresentados dois exemplos de aplicação e os resultados obtidos nestes modelos teóricos foram comparados com valores experimentais obtidos em prova de carga por outros autores. No trabalho é mostrado que o método da grelha possibilita modelar de forma muito prática tabuleiros de pontes formada por elementos pré-moldados e a comparação dos resultados, nos dois exemplos apresentados, indica uma boa precisão. / This work deals with precast concrete elements for bridge decks spanning up to 30 meters span. Design guidances are presented emphasizing two points: a) showing the several types of beam cross-sections and feasible and efficient ways to transversally connected them. b) Presentation of the grillage analysis method and the necessary considerations its use for the modeling of a bridge deck built using precast concrete elements. Two application examples are presented and theoretical model results are compared with experimental results of load tests performed by other authors. The conclusion is that the grillage analysis method allows a very practicable and accurate modeling of a bridge deck built with precast concrete elements.

As pontes são importantes elementos no desenvolvimento da infraestrutura de uma nação, possibilitando conexões de pessoas e bens. A ação do vento em pontes é um dos fatores determinantes no seu projeto. O efeito da ação do vento em tabuleiros de pontes pode, no limite, levar uma estrutura ao colapso. São inúmeras as formas das seções transversais que os tabuleiros podem apresentar; para cada uma delas os coeficientes de pressão são diferentes. Na Norma Brasileira de pontes (NBR 7187, 2003), a carga de vento é indicada no item 7.2.3 como uma ação variável que deve ser calculada de acordo com a Norma Brasileira de vento (NBR 6123, 1988). Entretanto, nesta não há considerações em relação à ação do vento em tabuleiros de pontes. Ou seja, em nossas normas há uma lacuna que precisa ser preenchida. Faltam informações, as quais são imprescindíveis para a elaboração de projetos e resolução de problemas existentes. Atualmente, a realização de ensaios em túnel de vento é a melhor forma de estimar a resposta de pontes sob a ação do vento. Esta pesquisa visa a aprimorar a fase de projeto de pontes através da sugestão, para complementação da Norma Brasileira de ventos NBR6123/88, de um item específico referente a coeficientes aerodinâmicos de distintas seções transversais de tabuleiros de pontes. Foram realizados ensaios em túnel de vento no Laboratório de Aerodinâmica das Construções da UFRGS (Porto Alegre, BR) de cinco seções transversais de tabuleiros de pontes. Os dados obtidos foram comparados com os de seções ensaiadas previamente. Os resultados são apresentados em termos de coeficientes de arrasto, sustentação e torção. Conclui-se que a geração dos novos resultados, bem como a disponibilização de dados específicos para diferentes formas de tabuleiros de pontes, contribuirá para a execução de projetos de estruturas de pontes mais otimizados. / Bridges are important elements on the development of a nation, allowing connections between people and goods. The wind action on bridges is one of the determine factors in bridge design. The wind action effect on bridge decks could take a bridge to its collapse. A bridge deck can have numerous shapes: for each one of them the aerodynamic coefficients are unique. In the Brazilian bridge code(NBR 7187, 2003), item 7.2.3, the wind load is presented as a variable action that must be evaluated accordingly to the Brazilian wind code(NBR 6123, 1988). Nevertheless, in the latter there isn’t any consideration regarding to the wind action on bridge decks. Hence, in our codes there is a gap that needs to be filled. There is some information missing, which is essential to the development of bridges design and to solve existing problems. Nowadays, producing experiments on wind tunnels is the best way to estimate the response of bridges submitted to wind actions. This research aims the improvement of bridge design with a suggestion of an introduction of a new item into the Brazilian wind code, specifically related to aerodynamic coefficients for distinct cross sections of bridge decks. Five different cross sections were tested on the wind tunnel at the Laboratório de Aerodinâmica das Construções of UFRGS (Porto Alegre, RS). The data acquired was compared to data obtained from previous experiments of different cross sections. The results are presented as drag, lift and torsion coefficients. In conclusion, the increase of data as well as the availability of data from different shapes of bridge decks will contribute to improved bridge design.

As pontes são importantes elementos no desenvolvimento da infraestrutura de uma nação, possibilitando conexões de pessoas e bens. A ação do vento em pontes é um dos fatores determinantes no seu projeto. O efeito da ação do vento em tabuleiros de pontes pode, no limite, levar uma estrutura ao colapso. São inúmeras as formas das seções transversais que os tabuleiros podem apresentar; para cada uma delas os coeficientes de pressão são diferentes. Na Norma Brasileira de pontes (NBR 7187, 2003), a carga de vento é indicada no item 7.2.3 como uma ação variável que deve ser calculada de acordo com a Norma Brasileira de vento (NBR 6123, 1988). Entretanto, nesta não há considerações em relação à ação do vento em tabuleiros de pontes. Ou seja, em nossas normas há uma lacuna que precisa ser preenchida. Faltam informações, as quais são imprescindíveis para a elaboração de projetos e resolução de problemas existentes. Atualmente, a realização de ensaios em túnel de vento é a melhor forma de estimar a resposta de pontes sob a ação do vento. Esta pesquisa visa a aprimorar a fase de projeto de pontes através da sugestão, para complementação da Norma Brasileira de ventos NBR6123/88, de um item específico referente a coeficientes aerodinâmicos de distintas seções transversais de tabuleiros de pontes. Foram realizados ensaios em túnel de vento no Laboratório de Aerodinâmica das Construções da UFRGS (Porto Alegre, BR) de cinco seções transversais de tabuleiros de pontes. Os dados obtidos foram comparados com os de seções ensaiadas previamente. Os resultados são apresentados em termos de coeficientes de arrasto, sustentação e torção. Conclui-se que a geração dos novos resultados, bem como a disponibilização de dados específicos para diferentes formas de tabuleiros de pontes, contribuirá para a execução de projetos de estruturas de pontes mais otimizados. / Bridges are important elements on the development of a nation, allowing connections between people and goods. The wind action on bridges is one of the determine factors in bridge design. The wind action effect on bridge decks could take a bridge to its collapse. A bridge deck can have numerous shapes: for each one of them the aerodynamic coefficients are unique. In the Brazilian bridge code(NBR 7187, 2003), item 7.2.3, the wind load is presented as a variable action that must be evaluated accordingly to the Brazilian wind code(NBR 6123, 1988). Nevertheless, in the latter there isn’t any consideration regarding to the wind action on bridge decks. Hence, in our codes there is a gap that needs to be filled. There is some information missing, which is essential to the development of bridges design and to solve existing problems. Nowadays, producing experiments on wind tunnels is the best way to estimate the response of bridges submitted to wind actions. This research aims the improvement of bridge design with a suggestion of an introduction of a new item into the Brazilian wind code, specifically related to aerodynamic coefficients for distinct cross sections of bridge decks. Five different cross sections were tested on the wind tunnel at the Laboratório de Aerodinâmica das Construções of UFRGS (Porto Alegre, RS). The data acquired was compared to data obtained from previous experiments of different cross sections. The results are presented as drag, lift and torsion coefficients. In conclusion, the increase of data as well as the availability of data from different shapes of bridge decks will contribute to improved bridge design.