This thesis recognizes the value of using a variety of perspectives to study the history of an ethnic minority group. The history of some groups is lacking in insider perspectives. I have attempted to add balance to the existing accounts by using an oral history approach to describe the experiences of the Sikhs living in British Columbia from 1920-1947. I am an insider, a Sikh whose grandfather was one of the original pioneers who came in the first wave of immigration in the 1904-1908 time period. These people are no longer with us, but some of their wives and children are still available to share their history with future generations. I interviewed and recorded 24 individual histories. From these I have formed a composite picture of the Sikh community in British Columbia from 1920-1947. Beginning with descriptions of social, political and cultural conditions in India and Canada at the time of arrival, we follow them through the important stages of their lives in their adopted land. They describe the journey over, settling in, adaptations, work, social life, the fight for rights, and the role of their temple and religion. We see the events and circumstances that eventually led to the Sikhs being able to call Canada their home. The many photographs, letters and documents give further insights into the lives of this distinctive group of Canadians. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

The Depression and World War II were two distinct sociological eras in the 20th century. Both of these periods played dramatic roles in the history and development of British Columbia. This research examined sport and physical recreational activities, to demonstrate the status and influence that these activities had during these two periods of social and economic turmoil. The research was carried out by reviewing government documents related to this era and this field of study, and then reviewing the effect these government acts, debates and discussions had on the sport and recreation programmes of the time. Newspaper reports and historical sketches of various sports and recreation programmes were the main source for gaining information of these activities. It was during the Depression that both the British Columbia Provincial Government and the Federal Government first introduced financial support for sport and recreation. The British Columbia Government inaugurated its Pro-Rec activity programme in 1934 and the Youth Training Act of 1937 saw the first Federal Government finance allocated for leisure-time activities. In 1943, during World War II the Canadian Government passed the National Physical Fitness Act which supported and funded sport and physical recreational activities as well as financially aiding the provincial programmes of Pro-Rec. The Depression years saw a definite rise in the status of sport. This was displayed in increased participation, increased spectator attendance, and increased coverage in newspapers and on the radio. This same increase was also noted in recreational activities, particularly in the programmes of Pro-Rec, the YMCA, the YWCA and such programmes as the Sunday School Activity Leagues. Physical education in the schools was improved in status to equal all other school subjects. The Depression years also saw the birth of such sport and recreation associations as the British Columbia branch of the Canadian Physical Education Association, the Vancouver Elementary Schools Physical Education Association for Women and the Vancouver Elementary Schools Physical Education Association. Sport and physical recreational activities influenced the life of many people. It was the type of activity that was being promoted to fill the long idle hours of unemployment. Promotion was undertaken by many agencies, the most prominent being the British Columbia Government with its Pro-Rec programmes. The war years that followed, however, saw a reversal in the status of these activity programmes. With the war effort consuming so many workers and so many hours, very few people had the time to participate in, organize or administer sport and recreation. All areas of sport and recreation seemed to suffer in the number of participants and the standard of participation. Sport and physical education in the schools and university also deteriorated; the new programmes introduced in the Depression years being disregarded or discontinued because of a lack of physical education teachers. / Education, Faculty of / Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of / Graduate

This study examines the fishing industry in British Columbia and finds that it is failing to provide fishermen with incomes comparable to those available in other seasonal occupations in the province. Because of the common-property status of the fishery resource and the fact that access to that resource is virtually unlimited, there has been excessive investment of capital and labour at the primary level of the industry. In this situation net returns to fishermen are seriously depressed. This problem is further complicated by the fact that most fishermen have limited occupational mobility. It is suggested that this combination of low incomes and occupational immobility produces frustration which leads to serious unrest among the fishermen. While the source of the income problem lies largely in the common-property status of the fishery resource, this is not immediately apparent to the fishermen. They feel that their poor incomes are a reflection of the inadequacy of the prices they receive for their catch. Thus, their financial relations with the fish processing companies become the focus of their discontent. However, as long as the fundamental problem of unrestricted entry remains unresolved, there will be continued industrial unrest. Assuming this to be true, it is further suggested that the prevailing atmosphere of discontent and conflict will be favourable to the growth of radical ideologies and the emergence of radical leaders in fishermen's unions. In support of these hypotheses, evidence is presented of the high level of conflict between the fishermen and the processing companies, and of the radical left-wing orientation of fishermen's unions in British Columbia. / Arts, Faculty of / Political Science, Department of / Graduate

This thesis considers the Pacific Great Eastern Railway, the British Columbia Railway as of April 1, 1972, a Provincial Crown corporation, and the implications of its extensions upon regional development. The indicators of regional development studied are population and industrial profiles. The time framework of the thesis is from 1952 to 1972, the period of the P.G.E. extensions. Two perspectives of the implications for regional development are examined. Chapter Two treats with the Provincial Government agencies whose policies have had the most effect in the study area. The financing, safety, and freight rate implications of the P.G.E. are discussed. In addition, general policies and inter-relationships with the P.G.E. of the following Provincial agencies are considered: B.C. Hydro, the Department of Highways, and the Forest Service. The third through sixth chapters consider the regional development of four regions: Squamish-Cariboo, Prince George, Peace River-Liard, and Omineca-Stikine. These regions, in turn, are broken into areas—usually to correspond with a central P.G.E. railway station and its commodity carloadings. The development within each area is studied in respect to population changes and industrial expansion since 1951. The P.G.E. commodity carloadings from 1966 through 1970 are used as indicators of regional development. The fluctuations of the carloadings of certain commodities, such as woodchips, lumber and veneer, merchandise, and machinery and parts, have been used to show the level of regional industrial development. Alone, the P.G.E. commodity carloadings are of little use. However, they take on more meaning in light of the policies of the Provincial Government agencies. The usefulness of the data takes a quantum leap when individual shippers indicate how much they ship, its routing, and its final destination. A limited attempt at this later refinement is provided by the responses of about fifty company and government officials to a single page, open-ended question letter. Most of these responses are in letter form although those companies with offices in Vancouver are interviews. A limitation of the technique used in this thesis to determine regional development is the inability to estimate the importance of the service sector. The obvious weight is given to the resource extraction and manufacturing sectors since these are the sectors which generate railway carloadings. Only when there is a significant population and the total carloadings are relatively low, are there suspicions of a large service sector or the possibility of significant truck shipments. The general conclusion to this thesis is that the Pacific Great Eastern Railway has stimulated regional development in the areas it serves directly. However, this development has been primarily in the forest products industry, in conjunction with Forest Service policies and technological improvements. The development of this industry has then provided a stimulus for maintenance and repair services and a more stable population base, which has helped to establish a need for improved highways. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The exploitation of natural resources in British Columbia has been strongly influenced by man's attitudes towards his environment. These attitudes have evolved from the cultural and historical legacy of Europe as well as from certain unique North American characteristics. As an ultimately irreplacable resource, wilderness serves as an interesting example of man's relationship to his environment. However, this relationship is difficult to document, requiring consideration of such diverse aspects as the cultural and historical sources of wilderness attitudes; the various values placed on wilderness; the treatment of wilderness as reflected in parks policy; and an approximate knowledge of the existing distribution of wilderness in British Columbia. Attempts to integrate these can at best only provide a personal view of the overall situation, but this seems useful if there is to be progress towards the understanding of man's relationship to his environment. The North American's perception and treatment of wilderness have been significantly affected by human history generally and North American myths specifically. Only in the last seventy to eighty years has it been possible for North Americans to regard wilderness without a great deal of fear and disdain. Up until this time the wilderness was an area of the unknown where man ventured in fear of his physical and spiritual safety. With the advent of an increasingly technocratic society, wilderness has come to serve as a significantly important symbol for a growing number of people. Wilderness stands as a symbol of man's origins and of his initial role as a member of the earth community. It symbolizes a collection of goals, ideals, and values that man may pursue as alternatives to pure material achievement. Also, because it is ultimately an irreplacable resource, wilderness preservation represents the preservation of individual freedoms and the number of alternatives available to future generations. The predominantly negative attitudes towards wilderness have facilitated and encouraged its hastened removal from the North American scene. Certainly British Columbia presently possesses vast amounts of wilderness. However, given the relatively short period of time since the date of its original European settlement, the rate of wilderness depletion must be regarded as significant. In examining wilderness losses over five time periods ranging from 1923 to 1970 it was found that the greatest alienations occurred following WW II, notably on Vancouver Island and in the mainland area south of 54°. While the rates of wilderness loss in these two regions have slowed somewhat, the mainland area north of 54° is currently experiencing wilderness loss at an accelerating rate. In 1970 less than 40% of the mainland area south of 54° could be classified as wilderness. This same figure for Vancouver Island was discovered to be less than six percent. Study of the mainland area north of 54° indicated that 84% of this area was wilderness, although this figure was based on insufficient data. In light of this wilderness view for British Columbia, eight specific recommendations on preservation policies at both the Federal and Provincial levels of Government can be outlined: clarification of purposes and objectives, greater cooperation between governments, implementation of a public education program, preservation of future alternatives, a greater emphasis on long-term considerations, and a broader basis for policy decisions. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Tourism has grown as a part of the process of settlement. The tourist has filled the role of observer, promotional agent, investor, settler and customer. The settlement process in turn generates new tourism. The tourist seeks change from the familiar, a rest, a sport, or many seek new experiences, new cities and new lands. The proportion of the population who participate in tourism, their wealth, time, and the modes of transportation have grown considerably. The implications of tourism are felt throughout the range of responsibility for land use planning. The role tourism has played, could play and should play has received little attention. The potential of tourism must be identified, projected, planned for and implemented in future development planning. Tourism is basically a movement of people. Our concept of studying people has rested heavily on a census of resident population, and considerable data has been accumulated. However little is known about movements of people in general, and tourist movements in particular. Projection of tourist movements into the future is therefore difficult. This study examines the hypothesis that "current sources of data are sufficient to estimate the numbers and origin of tourists entering an area, and that it would be possible to project such data objectively." The Province of British Columbia was selected as a case study. We know very little of the quantities and characteristics of tourists in British Columbia. Tourists entering the Province by automobile in the summer months have been examined in a single survey. There is a need to know more about tourists travelling at other times of year, by other means of transportation, travelling within the Province, and of changes over time. While we have overall estimates of tourism they lack detail and refinement. Planning agencies have paid little attention to tourism as yet. There has been only one study of tourism by a planning agency. Where it has been considered, the objective has been to preserve an environment and to locate tourist facilities convenient for tourists and to minimize the intrusion into the community. Changes in the quantities and characteristics of tourism appear to be inevitable. However the degree of change is not easy to determine. Population growth, increasing leisure time, growing personal income, and increased mobility appear to be the factors most likely to shape future patterns of tourism. A. twenty per cent reduction in working time appears to be feasible by the end of the century. This increased leisure time could result in a three-fold increase in annual vacations. Combined with a two-fold increase in population, this could lead to a six-fold growth in tourism. However, it-is doubtful whether all the increase in leisure time would be devoted to tourist activities. All methods available for projecting future tourist volumes have some value, but none are entirely satisfactory. A certain amount of "judgment" is required in any form of projection. As yet we have very little to act as a basis for such judgment. Existing data is minimal, and our analytical knowledge of many aspects of tourism is limited if not non-existent. However, we have estimates of total volumes of tourism in British Columbia from year to year. They provide a general picture of the importance of tourism within the study area. An examination of the future shows that tourism will grow, and may grow very considerably. Thus we can conclude that the hypothesis is valid at the broadest level. Improvements in data collection and our knowledge of the characteristics of tourism will permit refinement of projections of tourism, and consequently, will permit planning at a more detailed level. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This is an investigation of the British Columbia trapping industry and associated markets. A major part of the study is devoted to familiarizing the reader with the present industry. The product, trapline tenure, trappers, fur traders, earnings from trapping, marketing of the product, and administrative arrangements are described. Many problems are associated with the industry today — low incomes; raw fur prices which are declining, uncertain, and unstable; widespread ignorance of proper trapping techniques, pelt handling methods, and marketing opportunities; factor immobility; and lack of organization and contact among trappers. At the local level, there is little competition among fur buyers. Either there is only one trader in an area, or if there is more than one, they often collude. In some areas, market imperfections such as ignorance of outside markets and lack of access to capital, provide an opportunity for fur buyers to exploit the primary producers. Public administrative policies are analyzed in terms of their economic consequences, and their ability to handle the problems of trappers. Present policies lack clearly defined goals, are outdated, fail to consider the socioeconomic needs of trappers, and provide few incentives for efficiency in resource use and development. Management devices succeed in conserving the resource (once the most basic problem), but today with raw fur prices low in comparison to a decade ago, they systematically lead to an underutilization of the resource. In the absence of any organized competition for traplines, there is little assurance that the rights are possessed by the most efficient producers. The primary method of raising revenue, the collection of royalty, negates the efficiency of the management system by encouraging economizing on the harvest and failure to report all animals trapped. Traders' fees ration buying rights on the basis of differential fees. Industry structure has been stagnated by measures that prevent flexibility in the scale of trapping operations. Management lacks adequate information for informed policymaking. And non-enforcement of regulations and lack of control over Indian trapping further decreases the effectiveness of the management system. Moreover, there is no effective organization for rationalizing conflicting land-use problems. As a way of overcoming these problems and leading to a more efficient development of the fur resource, the following recommendations are made: (i) full negotiability of trapline boundaries, (ii) disposition of trapline rights through public auction, (iii) simplification but expansion of present trappers' return form to include more information, (iv) extension of licensing and questionnaire requirements to all trappers, regardless of ethnic origin, (v) enforcement of regulations, (vi) abandonment of royalties, (vii) reduction of fur-traders' fee to one nominal amount, (viii) expansion of trapper education programs, (ix) encouragement of the growth of trapping organizations, and (x) special recommendations for Indians. Data and information on which this thesis is based were obtained from: (i) the provincial Fish and Wildlife Branch and the Dominion Bureau of Statistics, (ii) personal correspondence and interviews with trappers, fur buyers, provincial fur administrators, and Indian Affairs Branch authorities, (iv) mailed questionnaires to fur traders, (v) trappers' manuals, (vi) "A Report on the B.C. Fur Resources Study" (unpublished manuscript), and (vii) fur industry studies for other provinces. A sample of income for trapping in British Columbia was derived through the use of simple mathematics, provincial average fur value statistics, and the trappers' returns. / Arts, Faculty of / Vancouver School of Economics / Graduate

The Technical Fisheries Short Course has been administered by the Department of Extension at The University of British Columbia for fifteen years with funds provided by the federal government. The content of this three-week adult education program for commercial fishermen is designed with emphasis on the scientific rather than vocational aspects of fisheries. It was the purpose of this study to evaluate the effectiveness of the Short Course in terms of new knowledge acquired and attitudes which were modified during the time it was offered. The study population consisted of 117 fishermen composed of 22 students of the 1969 Class (Group I); 40 non-students (Group II); and 55 former students (Group III). Data for Group I was collected by the use of six objective instruments and one subjective discussion session. Two of these, a knowledge-attitude test and a socio-economic instrument, were used to collect data for the other two Groups. Knowledge acquisition and attitude change for Group I was measured by administering the knowledge-attitude test in the pre and post situations. It was shown that learning did occur as average knowledge scores improved from 18.0 in the pre-test to 31.0 in the post-test out of a possible total of fifty. Although there were sixty-seven individual attitude changes to eight statements concerning governmental bodies, the overall Class attitude score remained virtually unchanged at 22.2 in the post-test from 22.4 in the pre-test out of a total of forty. By means of multiple stepwise regression it was shown that 30% of post-knowledge was dependent on pre-knowledge. By logic it is assumed that some of the remaining 70% was due, directly or indirectly, to exposure to the educational experience. Analysis of variance tests with socio-economic data provided some statistically significant results, but because of only one or two replies in the categories causing the significance these are not reported and further studies with larger populations are indicated. Group I fishermen showed a preference for vocationally-oriented subjects (unlike previous classes), but at the same time indicated an interest in and understanding of academic and research oriented content. In terms of interest and value ratings of the subjects offered the program content met the needs of the participants and they believed that what they had learned would help them to increase their financial returns from fishing. The results indicate the need for establishing instructional objectives and providing guidance to some instructors on teaching techniques. Other results based on the study are that consideration should be given to scheduling the program earlier in the year and that more advance publicity about the Short Course is required. The knowledge-attitude test and the socio-economic Instrument were also administered to Groups II and III (non-students and former students). As most of the Group I fishermen came from metropolitan areas in the lower mainland and on Vancouver Island an attempt was made to determine if the knowledge and attitude they possessed were representative of these factors for fishermen from metropolitan areas in general (Group II). Within the limitations of the study it was found that Group I knowledge was similar to that of Group II as determined by average group scores. On the same basis Group I attitude differed significantly at p.05 from that of Group II. Analysis of the data from the knowledge-attitude test and socioeconomic Instrument showed that Group I fishermen were more representative of Group III fishermen (former students) than they were of Group II fishermen (non-students). It was also determined that no significant difference existed between the knowledge scores of former students and post-test knowledge scores of Group I. This suggests a retention factor and reveals an area for further research. It was concluded on the basis of the factors studied that the 1969 Short Course was a success. The results indicate that certain modifications in content, instruction and format would have enhanced its effectiveness. The study also confirmed the difficulties faced by an adult education program administrator in concurrently conducting evaluative research. While the collection of evaluative data can be accomplished with comparative ease its interpretation and presentation becomes a problem in terms of the time and expense involved, a problem which can only be corrected by the provision of research funds. Other implications for research are a study of the application by students of knowledge gained at the Short Course and a study of the attitudes held by fishermen toward government regulatory agencies. Repeated evaluative studies of the Short Course using the same instruments established for this study are recommended. Communications research to determine if the program is influencing a much wider population than the fishermen who attend is also suggested. This empirical study provides a benchmark on which the research suggested can be built. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

This thesis describes the change in the pattern of service centres in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia at various periods during a century of European occupance. The study of settlement evolution in this region involves an examination of hierarchical change as indicated by variations in postal revenue. The attempt to focus both in time and space is one of the inherent difficulties in any dynamic study of the urban hierarchy, for it presents a basic problem in establishing an adequate and readily available index of centrality. Tertiary revenue would provide the best index, but it is neither available for the smaller centres nor through time. These disadvantages are not apparent in postal revenue which closely correlates with tertiary revenue. It is inferred that postal revenue reflects the tertiary activity of the great majority of service centres in British Columbia. Since the end of the nineteenth century the North American post office, with its low condition of entry, has been an essential part of all except some of the lowest order centres. Postal revenue data is available,throughout Canada, from Confederation onwards, but it presents some problems of utilization as dollar values change through time. The suggested method of expressing the revenue for each given year as a percentage of that for an areal unit is illustrated by its application to the Lower Mainland. However, while the Lower Mainland can be thought of as a physical entity, it must be considered as being part of a larger functional region which changes both functionally and areally. The province has been taken as the continuing functional unit. The idea would seem to be supported by the graphic analysis. The whole period, from 1858 to 1961, has been broken down into five eras, in each of which a common means of transport has predominated. The first era up to 1880 covers the years of initial exploitation and settlement of the region by Europeans, a period when water transport predominated. The second era (1881-1900) is a period of transition from water to rail: the first trans-continental railway merely duplicated the existing water facilities, but its construction encouraged a rapid expansion of settlement even before it actually opened. The turn of the century heralded a decade of feverish rail-way construction, culminating with the opening of the second trans-continental railway in 1915. The railway era ends with the close of hostilities in 1918, and the following era embraces the inter-war years, a period of transition from rail to road. The final era commences in 1940 for, although the steam railway and electric interurban assumed a new lease of life during the war, it was merely a temporary resurgence and road transport was soon predominant. The wartime incentive spurred a tremendous growth of the regional economy, a growth which has continued, somewhat sporadically, up to the present. Throughout the century, settlement change reflects the changes in the economy and transport facilities in the Lower Mainland. The economy of the region has passed from primary exploitation to that of a metropolitan complex with a growing secondary component. The Vancouver area has formed a distinct economic unit within the regions since the arrival of the railway in 1886. The growing functional concentration on the city led to the attainment of metropolitan status by the end of the first decade of the twentieth century. This attainment was expressed in the physical as well as the functional growth of the city: by 1910 it possessed over 30% of the provincial population and greater than 40% of the tertiary activity, more than double the proportions of a decade earlier. The interaction between the metropolis and the smaller centres, with the metropolis playing the dominant role, has given rise to the present urban hierarchy. The settlement pattern has varied from discrete and independent settlements, during the phase of primary exploitation, to a metropolitan-dominated complex. The discrete pattern changed to an increasingly depends hierarchy following the growth of Vancouver and New Westminster as market and distribution centres. The growth of these centres linked them into a common metropolitan area, while the external expansion of this area has resulted in the functional and physical domination of most of the region by the metropolis: a trend that has resulted in the supplanting of the central place hierarchy by an inter-urban complex. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

The present study is undertaken to explore social aspects of divorce legislation in British Columbia. The specific areas of procedures, grounds, domicile, and children of the marriage are examined as they would appear to have most significance for social welfare. The study attempts to draw attention to the relationship between law and human relations and to critically examine British Columbia divorce legislation, its functions and dysfunctions, in terms of the ideal whereby the law acts as an enabling device aimed at problem-solving. Chapter I of the study reviews the historical significance of attitudes, customs, and law still affecting divorce legislation in British Columbia and points out areas where they may presently be divorced from social reality. Chapter II, III, IV, and V examine specific areas of divorce legislation and their significance in modern society in terms of a problem solving approach. Chapter VI involves a survey of expert opinion on matters pertaining to British Columbia divorce legislation. The purpose here is to lend credibility to social problems around divorce legislation outlined in preceding chapters based on library research. Chapter VII is a short survey of comparative divorce legislation in a variety of other jurisdictions. This survey indicates possible solutions to some of the social problems arising from legislation in British Columbia. Throughout, the study method essentially involves library research with the exception of Chapter VI. A small sample of experts in a variety of fields interested in the question of divorce were interviewed. Experts include clergymen, politicians, lawyers, judges, social workers, etc. The interviews were structured by means of an interview schedule. Initial exploration carried out in this study indicates that the adversary nature of British Columbia divorce legislation with its limited grounds is not conducive to problem-solving and appears instead to create new problems for those already suffering from damaged interpersonal relationships. A variety of social problems arising from the legislation are more closely defined and documented by reading and expert opinion. Some of these social problems involve the fact that in undefended divorce cases the true facts are unlikely to emerge. The adversary system prevents the parties concerned from taking a mature look at what caused the marital breakdown. The law penalizes those who attempt reconciliation due to factors involved in condonation. Collusion bars also discourage discussion of matters of mutual concern or serve to keep such discussion secret. In some cases even though all personal and social functions of marriage have ceased to exist, the legal tie must be maintained because neither partner has committed adultery or is willing to engaged in fraud. In other cases, those who have grounds for divorce are unable to obtain same because of legal costs and difficulties in establishing domicile or travelling to a court that has jurisdiction. Scant investigation of proposed plans for children of the marriage is carried out unless the custody is contested. In general, British Columbia divorce legislation does not provide for any investigation concerning what really causes a marriage to fail. It provides no relief for many whose marriages have broken down beyond repair and no impetus towards problem-solving for others who might become reconciled or at least divorced with a minimum of secondary damage and with a recognition of responsibilities involving children. Divorce legislation in other countries is suggested as offering possible solutions for many of the problems inherent in our own law. Literature from the United States of America concerning Family-or Matrimonial Courts is seen in this study as the most fruitful. Hopefully then, the documentation of social problems associated with British Columbia divorce legislation and suggested solutions for change will aid others in future research of a more specific nature. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate