Using data from the prospective Black Women's Health Study (BWHS; n=18,525), the impact of neighborhood walkability on incident diabetes and depressive symptomology was assessed. Neighborhood walkability was assessed for BWHS participants residing in Chicago, IL, Los Angeles, CA or New York, New York in 1995, 1997 or 1999 by factor-analyzing 14 components (e.g., sidewalk coverage, number/type of intersections, population/housing density) into a single continuous measure ("neighborhood walkability"), divided into four categories (least walkable, 2nd least walkable, 2nd most walkable, most walkable). Compared to women living in a most walkable neighborhood in 1995, women living in a least walkable neighborhood had a modestly higher hazard of incident diabetes over 16 years of follow-up (IRR=1.06; 95% CI=0.90-1.24) and a higher risk of depressive symptomology, using 1999 and 2005 Center for Epidemiologic Studies (CES-D) scores (CES-D≥16: RR=1.02, 95% CI=0.94-1.11; CES-D≥25: RR=1.18, 95% CI=1.02-1.37). Associations with incident diabetes were strongest among women who resided in a higher SES neighborhood, among the healthiest women (lowest body mass index, most frequent vigorous exercise), and when follow-up was lagged four or 10 years, while associations with depressive symptomology were strongest among women who resided in Los Angeles, who engaged in no vigorous activity at baseline, or who averaged less than one per hour travelling in a car or bus. Neighborhood walkability and neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) were strongly inversely related; disentangling these two aspects is a methodological challenge to assessing the health impact of the built environment. In a subset of 3,000 addresses, neighborhood walkability in 1999 was highly positively correlated (r=0.70) with WalkScore® (a free, publicly-available measure relying upon walking distances to specified amenities) in 2012-13. Neighborhood walkability and WalkScore® were both valid measures of neighborhood walkability, best gauged using total length of bus routes, number of intersections, and total sidewalk length. WalkScore® has the potential to serve as a "standard" neighborhood walkability measure, allowing easier comparison of the health impact of the built environment across many studies.

The built environment has long been considered as a potentially influential factor in shaping and changing people’s travel behaviour. However, many gaps still exist in the understanding of the direction, size and mechanism of this influence. This thesis explores the complexities in the influence of the built environment on daily travel using a behaviour-oriented, activity-based modelling approach based on the notion of utility maximisation. The model simulates the full process of decision making in daily activity participation and travel, which involves the decisions on the type and frequency of activity participation, the sequence of activities, the choice of destinations and the time and mode of travel. Moreover, the thesis also addresses the lack of understanding on the influence of the ‘third dimension’ of the built environment — the street facades. A machine learning-based method is proposed to automatically evaluate the qualities of street facades from street view images. Scenario analyses using the proposed model show that, both commute and non-commute travel are more sensitive to the built environment in proximity to home (in my experiment, 500 metre buffer zone). In the context of Beijing, the total car use and commute car use of a person is significantly affected by the level of land use mix and the continuity of street facades around home, among all built environment features. Non-commute car use is significantly affected by employment density, retail density, accessibility to commercial clusters, bus coverage, road density and the quality and continuity of street facades. Similar effects on the final outcomes of travel behaviour (such as total car use) by different built environment features can happen through diverse processes and have different implications for people’s actual experience and the urban system. Some of the results are consistent with theoretical assumptions and some are not, which provides alternative insights into the relationship between the built environment and travel behaviour.

Society is at an energy crossroads today. How will our global economy become sustainable for future generations? For today's global organizations can the right thing and the profitable thing be the same thing? Can (or should) successful organizations improve the human condition? Worldwide, buildings account for 17 per cent of fresh water withdrawals, 25 per cent of wood harvest, 33 per cent of CO2 emissions and 40 per cent of material and energy use. Integrated 'green' and sustainable building design is being heralded as the fastest route to ecological modern buildings in Europe, North America and Asia (United States Green Building Council, 2008). On average North Americans spend 90 per cent (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2009) of their time indoors, a large portion of this time in commercial buildings. Furthermore, salaries and wages account for approximately 90 per cent (Romm and Browning, 1994) of an organization's building-related expenses. However, in our rush to create 'green' and sustainable North American commercial buildings and a laser-like focus on reducing carbon footprints and reducing energy costs have we lost sight of the purpose of the commercial building which is the generation of wealth through the productivity of the commercial building occupant and by extension the occupant's organization. For if any slight increase or if any slight decrease in occupant and organizational productivity can be proven this would easily justify or (un)justify respectively most if not all North American commercial building sustainability initiatives as 'productivity is the fundamental economic measure of a technology's contribution' (Brynjolfsson, 1994). In other words have we increased or at a minimum maintained occupant and organizational productivity as we move our North American commercial building occupants and organizations into these newly created enhanced 'green' and sustainable structures with their new or enhanced 'green' and sustainable systems, processes and designs. The originality of the research will be in the linking of these two distinct areas namely; organizational productivity to North American commercial building 'green' and sustainability initiatives. Furthermore, through the mixed-methods research methodology approach we will attempt to develop new knowledge and findings as we implement measureable 'green' and sustainable strategies into comparative North American commercial building research settings.

Master of Public Health / Department of Kinesiology / Katie M. Heinrich / Introduction: Transportation-related physical activity can help adults can meet moderate physical activity guidelines. Only 52% of United States adults meet the physical activity guidelines on a regular basis. Active transportation (AT) is a healthier alternative to motorized transport and incorporates more physical activity into one’s day. Universities with supportive built environment features, such as pedestrian and bicycling infrastructure and amenities, can support AT choices. This study was conducted to (1) examine differences in the overall physical activity and AT behaviors of university students, faculty and staff in 2008 and 2016; and (2) explore influential factors for transportation choice and perceptions of the campus built environment in 2016. Physical activity and AT behaviors were hypothesized to be greater in 2016 than 2008 due to changes in supportive built environment features on campus. Methods: All students, faculty and staff members at Kansas State University’s Manhattan campus were eligible to participate in this repeated cross-sectional study by completing a survey in 2008 and 2016. Similar survey questions were asked both years to allow for comparisons. Questions asked about physical activity levels, transportation modes, factors influencing mode choice, and (in 2016) written feedback regarding built environment changes on campus and additional changes needed. After dichotomizing responses by role (students or faculty/staff), independent samples t-tests were used to assess differences in physical activity and transportation modes between survey years. The most influential reasons for transportation mode in 2016 were identified and compared by role. Multiple linear regression models were used to predict variance within each transportation mode. Themes were identified within the written feedback. Results: In spring 2016, 1006 participants (815 students, 80 faculty, and 111 staff members) completed the survey. This compared to 800 participants in spring 2008 (368 students, 256 faculty, and 176 staff members). There was a significant difference for greater moderate but not vigorous physical activity for both students and faculty/staff in 2016 than 2008. Days per week of driving, biking, and other transportation were significantly greater for students, while driving, walking, and biking were significantly greater for faculty/staff in 2016 than 2008. For students, linear regression predicted 21.4% of the variance for driving, 14.7% of walking, and 5.4% of biking for transport. Strongest predictors for students were: health benefits (β = -0.27) and time constraints (β = 0.21) for driving, traffic congestion (β = 0.19) and length of time frequenting campus (β = -0.17) for walking, and safety concerns for crime (β = -0.26) for biking. For faculty/staff, linear regression predicted 23.5% of the variance for driving, 70.3% of walking, 29.8% of biking, and 14.0% of other transport. Strongest predictors for faculty/staff were: time constraints (β = 0.34) and health benefits (β = -0.30) for driving, health benefits (β = 0.28) and time constraints (β = -0.55) for walking, environmental concerns (e.g., pollution; β = 0.35) and safety concerns for crime (β = -0.43) for biking, and weather (β = -0.37) for other transportation. From 436 written responses, main themes for AT influences were: construction (n = 174), parking (n = 128), walking (n = 99), and biking (n = 64). From 403 responses for suggestions for improvements on the commute to campus main themes were: bike lanes (n = 85), sidewalks (n = 29), limits of construction (n = 28), and KSU master plan (n = 26). Conclusions: Time constraints was a key factor for both students and faculty/staff that positively predicted driving and negatively predicted walking behaviors. Few campus built environment features emerged as key predictive factors. Understanding key influences for transportation-related physical activity and commuting behaviors in a university population are useful for health behavior promotion as well as campus planning. Future research should further study the relationship between mode of transportation and other health behaviors in students, faculty, and staff.

abstract: The sustainability impacts of the extension of the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system in suburban Beijing are explored. The research focuses on the neighborhood level, assessing sustainability impacts in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and energy consumption. By emphasizing suburban neighborhoods, the research targets the longest commuting trips, which have the most potential to generate significant sustainability benefits. The methodology triangulates analyses of urban and transportation plans, secondary data, time series spatial imagery, household surveys, and field observation. Three suburban neighborhoods were selected as case studies. Findings include the fact that MRT access stimulates residential development significantly, while having limited impact in terms of commercial or mixed-use (transit-oriented development) property development. While large-scale changes in land use and urban form attributable to MRT access are rare once an area is built up, adaptation occurs in the functions of buildings and areas near MRT stations, such as the emergence of first floor commercial uses in residential buildings. However, station precincts also attract street vendors, tricycles, illegal taxis and unregulated car parking, often impeding access and making immediate surroundings of MRT stations unattractive, perhaps accounting for the lack of significant accessibility premiums (identified by the researcher) near MRT stations in suburban Beijing. Household-based travel behavior surveys reveal that public transport, i.e., MRT and buses, accounts for over half of all commuting trips in the three case study suburban neighborhoods. Over 30% of the residents spend over an hour commuting to work, reflecting the prevalence of long-distance commutes, associated with a dearth of workplaces in suburban Beijing. Non-commuting trips surprisingly tell a different story, a large portion of the residents choose to drive because they are less restrained by travel time. The observed increase of the share of MRT trips to work generates significant benefits in terms of lowered energy consumption, reduced greenhouse gas and traditional air pollution emissions. But such savings could be easily offset if the share of driving trips increases with growing affluence, given the high emission intensities of cars. Bus use is found to be responsible for high local conventional air pollution, indicating that the current bus fleet in Beijing should be phased out and replaced by cleaner buses. Policy implications are put forward based on these findings. The Intellectual Merit of this study centers on increased understanding of the relationship between mass transit provision and sustainability outcomes in suburban metropolitan China. Despite its importance, little research of this genre has been undertaken in China. This study is unique because it focuses on the intermediate meso scale, where adaptation occurs more quickly and dramatically, and is easier to identify. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Sustainability 2012

In the current atmosphere of intense concern over school violence, steps are often hastily taken to “fortify” schools without forethought for how such actions may adversely impact the school environment and students’ psychological wellbeing. Given the paucity of evidence that unequivocally demonstrates the effectiveness of metal detectors, security cameras, and other security features (NASP, 2013; Addington, 2009), this study investigates a potentially more sound approach toward enhancing school safety initiatives. Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) is one philosophy that is commonly used in the design of safe schools, and—consistent with this philosophy—the present study investigates whether schools designed around CPTED principles are perceived as being safer and/or more psychologically comfortable when they are compared to schools that do not adhere to CPTED design elements. In the current study, the researcher visited three middle schools and four high schools across southern Arizona where students used their school laptops or computer labs to complete an online survey via Qualtrics survey software. Nine hundred students in grades 7 through 12 completed the survey, which included preexisting measures of risk behavior, previous exposure to violence, and school climate, as well as a novel instrument entitled the Preferable School Design Measure (PSDM). The PSDM presented pairs of photographs featuring a CPTED school design and a non-CPTED school design, then asked respondents in which school they would feel safer and more psychologically comfortable, respectively. Results indicate that students had a significantly greater preference for CPTED versus non-CPTED school designs (p <.001), both in terms of perceived psychological comfort (d = .70) and physical safety (d = .84). No significant differences were found in preferences for CPTED schools based on age, race/ethnicity, self-reported academic achievement, levels of previous exposure to violence, or socio-economic status, which suggests that identified preferences are generally robust to many common between-group demographic differences. Overall, study results suggest that implementing CPTED designs may be an effective approach to engender feelings of both safety and comfort among students. Moreover, it is conceivable that by changing the current landscape of mediocre school facilities, the academic and psychosocial outcomes of students inhabiting these facilities might be greatly enhanced.

Master of Regional and Community Planning / Department of Architecture / Brent C. Chamberlain / As urban development continues, it is imperative we understand how infrastructural policies impact well-being in order to design functional and healthy cities. The growth in wearable sensors and real-time data offer a way to assess the day-to-day influence of built infrastructure on health. The aim of this research is to determine if and how much characteristics of the built environment affect individual physiological responses. The purpose of this research is two-fold: 1) quantify and understand the linkages between form and function of the built environment on human affect and 2) identify practices for collecting and mining sensor data that can be used by planners. Subjects (n = 24) were sent on a walk through downtown Manhattan, Kansas. The route was carefully designated to expose individuals to different architectural and environmental features such as: vegetation, infrastructure (broadly), building height and area, land use, trees and street conditions. The study explores the associations of nearly a dozen environmental characteristics with the real-time feedback from sensor data. The sensors used in this study measure electrodermal activity (EDA) and heart rate (HR) which were linked spatially using GPS. The results enable a spatio-temporal analysis to identify correlations between environmental characteristics and spatial representations of urban form. Differences of stress-related responses are identified through statistical analysis. The data and spatial analyses were also used by colleagues to develop a machine learning approach to explore methods for estimating stress. In addition to quantifying urban form additional subject information was collected, such as demographic information, fitness level, sense of place, feeling of community, and feeling of exposure in the built environment. This work builds upon a previous study by Parker Ruskamp (MLA 2016). His qualitative results indicate that areas with lower lighting (at night) and higher-density infrastructure caused increased stress reactions. The efforts in this report, added additional participants and worked to spatially quantify urban form in order to conduct quantitative assessments to characterize the influence of environmental features against stress. Through the analysis it was discovered there is a relationship to biophysical measures and relationship to vegetation presence, building façades, building area or envelope, zoning and parking lots. In particular, the most influential characteristics were the amount of parking in close proximity to participants at night and the quality of the sidewalks during the day. While effects were discovered, further work should be done to confirm and generalize these findings. These initial results demonstrate how using biophysical measures can help planners evaluate the effectiveness of policies and built-environments toward improving the well-being of citizens. Further, this study provides a basis on how designs can be better informed by geospatial analysis, enhanced through an extensive environmental characteristic literature review, and statistical analysis to promote health and well-being through urban design.

Place is a setting for everyday life. Through processes of meaning making that are rooted in experience and interaction, places become meaningful and structure much of everyday life. Place is simultaneously a physical construction that gives it material form. Place is an object that is envisioned, designed, organized, redesigned, and reorganized. Often, the (re)creation of places is entrusted to professional placemakers, a population with decision making power over processes of physical construction. This research broadly identifies professional placemakers as a population whose professional work can affect change onto the built environment. The literature of place attachment provides strong testimony to the meaningful relationships that people have to built environments and physical forms. For example, the meanings and emotions that residents and stakeholders attach to their homes, neighborhoods, cities, and communities. Professional placemakers hold a degree of power over the built environment and can drastically transform the attachments that people have to place. This research explores the interaction of the social and physical construction of place by considering how placemakers socially construct places in their professional work of physically constructing sites. I ask: how do professional placemakers form emotional bonds to the places they work to (re)create? And, what do those places mean to them? Primary data analysis of eight in-depth interviews with professional placemakers reveal that placemakers socially construct places they work to (re)create in different ways. The data revealed two interacting themes – ‘for the people’ and pride. Further analysis concluded that some professional placemakers see place as a social territory that is unique with history, people, and problems; while others see place as a piece of the built environment that is the successful product of their professional work. While this research underscores the saliency of place attachment across populations by addressing a gap in the literature, these findings have implications for the professional field of placemaking in general. If placemakers are varied in the ways they socially construct the places they are charged to (re)create, what are the consequences for the places on which they work and the people who will live, work, or play in those places?

Purpose: There is a worldwide movement towards sustainability. A stepping-stone towards a sustainability conscience population starts in the education of the younger generation. Focusing on improving sustainability education will shift and shape youths' interests and lifestyles into an educated community that will work sustainably. A sustainability conscience community will continue to make moral sustainable decisions in their future endeavors. The gap between theory and practice of sustainability is substantial. Educational institutions must be the leaders in this subject to mold future generations’ incoming leaders into sustainability conscious critical thinkers. Current environmental issues such as climate change, CO2 Emissions, poverty and so on must impact these educational institutions to make sustainability education a priority in its curriculum. Addressing this problem requires a holistic approach which integrates sustainability education earlier on to grasp further understanding of sustainability actions in higher education and in society. Sustainability education exists in all levels. Although, sustainability education is much more prominent in higher education institutions as opposed to Elementary, Middle, and High Schools. Consequently, less students are prepared with the desired sustainability knowledge needed in higher education and students' future careers to instill in their disciplines since behavior is achieved through repetitive actions that were not set as a foundation earlier in their education. Approach: There were two approaches in this research. The first research approach was conducting a survey in 120 students, half of them in secondary education and the other half in higher education. The survey was formatted to analyze three different questions: 1) whether students in high school and higher education knew about sustainability 2) whether students' lifestyle consisted of pro-environmental actions, 3) and whether they learned to perform these actions in secondary education or higher education. The second approach was to create an educational tool to implement sustainability behavioral change strategies in their everyday lifestyles. Findings: Study found that most students are aware about sustainability. However, most students engage in pro-environmental actions in higher education because they started learning about them in higher education. Therefore, although most secondary education students are aware about sustainability, they aren't engaging in pro-environmental actions. In conclusion, a sustainability toolkit was created based on behavioral change strategies to reduce water usage, CO2 emissions, energy consumption, and waste output in their school and everyday lifestyles. Value: The efforts of sustainability in Higher Education have been clear in most recent years, although, there is still much resistance to change, transform and reimagine society and education for sustainability. The future of life and social world on Earth is in jeopardy since poverty, climate change, and lack of peace is occurring worldwide. Sustainability education must respond and act on this challenge subsequently to respect all forms of life and future generations. The mission of the sustainability toolkit is to create a pedagogy to assist educational institutions and communities to develop the skills and knowledge to work sustainably.

This thesis looks at the practice of climate modelling at the urban scale in relation to projections of future climate. It responds to the question of how climate models perform in a policy context, and how these models are translated in order to have agency at the urban scale. It considers the means and circumstances through which models are constructed to selectively represent urban realities and potential realities in order to explore and reshape the built environment in response to a changing climate. This thesis is concerned with an interdisciplinary area of research and practice, while at the same time it is based on methodologies originating in science and technology studies which were later applied to architecture and planning, geography, and urban studies. Fieldwork consisted of participant-observation and interviews with three groups of practitioners: firstly, climate impacts modellers forming part of the Adaptation and Resilience in a Changing Climate (ARCC) programme; secondly, planners and adaptation policymakers in the cities of Manchester and London; and thirdly, boundary organisations such as the UK Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP). Project and climate policy material pertinent to these projects and the case study cities were also analysed in tandem. Of particular interest was the common space shared to researchers and stakeholders where modelling results were explained, contextualised, and interrogated for policy-relevant results. This took the form of stakeholder meetings in which the limits of the models in relation to policy demands could be articulated and mediated. In considering the agency of models in relation to uncertainties, it was found that although generated in a context of applied science, models had a limited effect on policy. As such, the salience of urban climatic risk-based assessment for urban planning is restrained, because it presupposes a quantitative understanding of climate impacts that is only slowly forming due to societal and governmental pressures. This can be related both to the nature of models as sites of exploration and experimentation, and to the distribution of expertise in the climate adaptation community. Although both the research and policy communities operate partly in a common space, models and their associated tools operate at a level of sophistication that policy-makers have difficulty comprehending and integrating into planning policy beyond the level of simple guidance and messages. Adaptation in practice is constrained by a limited understanding of climate uncertainties and urban climatology, evident through the present emphasis on catch-all solutions like green infrastructure and win-win solutions rather than the empowerment of actors and a corresponding distribution of adequate resources. An analysis is provided on the means by which models and maps can shape climate adaptation at scales relevant for cities, based on considerations of how models gain agency through forms of encoded expertise like maps and the types of interaction between science and policy that they imply.