This thesis discusses the evidence for funerary practices afforded to children in the Earlier Bronze Age in Britain (circa 2500BC to 1400BC) focussing on three key case study areas: Scotland, Yorkshire and Wessex. A long-view of the Earlier Bronze Age has been adopted to enable broad patterns to be determined and discussed. The wider aim is to offer a fuller understanding of the perception and importance of children within Earlier Bronze Age society. Following the theoretical and methodological framework adopted throughout the study the evidence for the mortuary treatment of children and the grave furnishings provided for them is discussed with particular reference to how children’s graves compare to those of adults in the same chronological period. To accompany this study, a comprehensive catalogue of previously recorded children’s burials both by inhumation and after cremation has been compiled by the writer for the three case study areas. This includes data both from antiquarian sources and from modern excavation reports detailing aspects of grave location, positioning of the body and associated material culture in the form of grave goods. The corpus is then reviewed and discussed for each of the case study areas. The aim of each study is to analyse the significance of aspects of funerary practice and the role of grave goods in association with children of fifteen years of age or younger within regional burial traditions. This study indicates that children are under-represented in the burial record and suggests that formal burial was not open to all immature individuals. In each of the case study areas funerary rites afforded to children are generally consistent with those of adults but this study demonstrates that the inclusion of certain objects found in adult graves (such as bronze knife-daggers) were not considered appropriate for inclusion in the grave of a child. A number of exceptional and highly-furnished graves are present which indicate that it was possible for children to be perceived as significant members of Earlier Bronze Age society during life and in the Otherworld.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / DiscussÃo sobre o fim dos sepultamentos nas igrejas e a construÃÃo de novos cemitÃrios em SÃo LuÃs. No sÃculo XIX, com a afirmaÃÃo da medicina, os enterramentos realizados dentro dos templos religiosos passaram a ser alvo de merosas interdiÃÃes. O desenvolvimento do âhigienismoâ foi gradativamente construindo a idÃia de que os sepultamentos nos templos religiosos eram perniciosos à saÃde, pois exalavam vapores miasmÃticos causadores de malefÃcios fÃsicos e atà mesmo morais aos vivos. Com o acirramento das epidemias, no sÃculo XIX, em SÃo LuÃs, o discurso mÃdico, que primava pela construÃÃo de novos cemitÃrios longe das cidades, das fontes de Ãgua e onde os ventos soprassem contrariamente ao ambiente urbano, adquiriu maior visibilidade. Em 1828, a âLei Imperial de EstruturaÃÃo dos MunicÃpiosâ se tornou uma dentre as vÃrias tentativas de reorganizaÃÃo do espaÃo urbano de SÃo LuÃs e de construÃÃo de novos locais de sepultamento, afastados das igrejas, jà que os cemitÃrios existentes atà meados do sÃculo XIX eram locais de enterramento basicamente de pobres e desvalidos. Em 1855, apÃs vÃrios surtos epidÃmicos anteriores, a cidade à acometida por um grande surto de varÃola, que levou a norma à prÃtica, com a construÃÃo do cemitÃrio do GaviÃo. Este passou a ser, a partir de entÃo, local de sepultamento nÃo sà de indigentes e escravos, mas tambÃm de parte considerÃvel das classes mais abastadas de SÃo LuÃs. / Discussion about the extinction of church burials and the construction of new cemeteries in SÃo LuÃs. In the nineteenth century, with the affirmation of medicine, the burials conducted within religious temples became the target of numerous interdictions. The development of âhygienismâ gradually constructed the idea that burials within religious temples were harmful to health, since they exhaled miasmatic vapors which caused physical and even moral damages to the living. With the increase of epidemics in the nineteenth century in SÃo LuÃs, the medical discourse, which claimed for the construction of new cemeteries far from the towns, water fountains, and where the wind blew reversely in relation with the urban environment, acquired further visibility. In 1828, the âImperial Law of Municipalities Restructuringâ became one among various essays of reorganization of SÃo LuÃs urban space and of construction of new burial places, far away from churches, since the existing cemeteries, up to the middle of the nineteenth century, were basically for poor and helpless. In 1855, after various previous epidemical irruptions, the city was attacked by a big irruption of smallpox, which led the norm into practice, with the building of the GaviÃo Cemetery. Since then, that cemetery became a burial place not only for indigents and slaves, but also for a considerable part of the wealthier classes of SÃo LuÃs.

Izapa, a Late Preclassic regional center located in southern Mexico, was heavily excavated by the New World Archaeological Foundation from 1961-1965. However, much remains unclear regarding the details of those excavations, specifically in regards to Group B. In this thesis I hope to present important details derived from those excavations in a way that is meaningful and useful. The purpose of this thesis project is to: (1) reconstruct the excavation history of Izapa Group B, (2) to provide a reconstruction of Group B's architectural history as revealed through the excavations, and (3) to identify and present descriptions of the contents and context of the plaza's numerous burials and offerings. Group B, containing the oldest known constructions at Izapa, is a special place and vital to understanding the growth and development of Izapa as a regional center.

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Ancient humans stored family remains under their houses as we have surely stored memories in our attics. As civilization progressed, ashes were placed in urns which often replicated the house where one lived on earth. Eventually more elaborate and stylized monuments housed the remains. Recent practices have shown estrangement to death and denial of its importance in the natural cycle. this project reintroduces the funeral urn as object and ritual. It attempts to reawaken and reconnect us to our historically diverse cultures and to the life-death cycle by creating the house for ashes. This house is our last abode. / Master of Science

Thesis (M.ED.) --University of Limpopo, 2008 / The research covers the way the Vhavenḓa people bury their dead. Although the emphasis is on Tshivenḓa burials, the study has also examined the way burials are undertaken in other cultures such as Xhosa, Sotho, Indians, Xitsonga, Hindu, Greek and Muslim culture. The study shows that burials in Tshivenḓa are characterized by peculiar features. For instance the way the royal people are buried is different from the way the ordinary people are laid to rest. In addition, there are also special rituals that must be performed when children, women and men are buried. The study also includes to the fact that mordernity, has an impact on the manner in which the Vhavenḓa conduct their burials. In the past burials where cheap to conduct whereas these days they are relatively expensive. Lastly, the study has discovered that both old and modern forms of burials have advantages and disadvantages. It is, therefore, crucial for people to utilize the advantages of both the afore mentioned types of burial.

Little detailed analysis has been undertaken which looks at the coin in the context of the burial. Their numismatic information is discussed in detail in excavation reports but little or no attempt is made to investigate the function of the coin. In many cases they are simply regarded as payments to Charon, the ferryman of Greek mythology, for the journey to the afterlife; an interpretation based on classical literature. Earliest research into the subject tended to look for evidence for ‘Charon’s Obol’ using the information in the Greek and Roman sources with little or no reference to the archaeological material. This did not allow for a full understanding of their presence and meaning. Publication of Gorecki’s Studien zur Sitte Münzbeigabe in römerzeitlichen Körpergräbern’ (BRGK 56, 1975) and Cantilena’s Un obolo per Caronte? (PdP 50, 1995) significantly changed methodology by analysing burial remains but even these are limited. They look very specifically at one part of the Empire and a single aspect of the coin in the burial, i.e. location and thus are not sufficiently detailed to find patterns which can be tested in different areas of the Roman Empire. This work is a systematic analysis of the coin in the context of the burial using case studies from cemeteries from Roman Italy, Germany, Britain and unconquered Scandinavia (as a comparison to the Imperial evidence). It takes a database of c. 450-500 burials from each of the areas (with the exception of Denmark which has fewer examples) and investigates the pre-Roman tradition, chronological distribution of the practice, the metal type and number of coins used, the length of time between coin and burial date, pierced coins and associated grave goods. The aims are as follows: - Thoroughly investigate the coin in the context of the burial in each of the case study areas and compare the patterns identified; - Explore the origin and spread of this custom, from early Greece to Italy across the Roman Empire and beyond, while investigating the potential religious or social meanings of the practice and its distribution; - Chart the evolution and the possible reasons for changes and modifications to the practice over space and time; - Assess the significance of my findings in terms of the transmission of cultural traditions or religious beliefs and practices between ancient societies.

Thesis (M.ED.) --University of Limpopo, 2008 / The research covers the way the Vhavenḓa people bury their dead. Although the emphasis is on Tshivenḓa burials, the study has also examined the way burials are undertaken in other cultures such as Xhosa, Sotho, Indians, Xitsonga, Hindu, Greek and Muslim culture. The study shows that burials in Tshivenḓa are characterized by peculiar features. For instance the way the royal people are buried is different from the way the ordinary people are laid to rest. In addition, there are also special rituals that must be performed when children, women and men are buried. The study also includes to the fact that mordernity, has an impact on the manner in which the Vhavenḓa conduct their burials. In the past burials where cheap to conduct whereas these days they are relatively expensive. Lastly, the study has discovered that both old and modern forms of burials have advantages and disadvantages. It is, therefore, crucial for people to utilize the advantages of both the afore mentioned types of burial.