In the last ten years there has been increasing concern about the drop in numbers of experienced British merchant ship officers. This short fall in manpower will have serious repercussions on the recruitment strategy of United Kingdom shore-based shipping support organisations. These employers have relied upon a supply of former ships' officers to recruit into various key jobs. Research has shown that demand is expected to exceed suppy, and there has been much debate concerning a solution to the problem. This thesis is an analysis of the shore-side maritime industry's recruitment strategy in the light of this forecast shortage of experienced ships' officers. It aims to make a substantial conribution to the debate concerning recruitment pre-requisites into the industry and increase understanding of the reasons why employers prefer to recruit former ships' officers. There are two 'strands' in this thesis. First of all this work provides a broad, qualitative analysis of the situation. It focuses upon the recruitment of seafarers into the shore-based maritime industry, the supply of and demand for seafarers and the reasons for their decline in numbers. The work uses data that has been generated on the maritime labour market to argue that the industry needs to train non-seafarers for certain key jobs instead of recruiting former officers. Theories and concepts originating from experts on skill shortages are used to show that the industry is unlikely to react in time to the shortage to prevent wider damage to the UK's maritime sector. Therefore this work supports the idea that non-seafarer training schemes are feasible for some types of work, and also need to be supported by the State in order to preserve the pool of experienced officers. Secondly, the arguments put forward by employers and employee bodies areanalysed to ascertain why they believe it is necessary that former seafarers have to be employed to carry out certain key jobs. This work also argues that there are other reasons besides those given as to why employers do not see the training of non-seafarers as a good alternative. The situation in the industry is tested against two models of 'professional power'. A new model of professionalism was created in order to develop understanding of how and why maritime occupational groups try to exclude non-seafarers from shore-based marine related work. It concluded that there is a mobilisation of bias within the sector against non-seafarers entering an industry that predominantly favours of those who have ships' officer experience

Telework as a swift developing business has attracted great attention from government, company and organisation due to its large benefits for out society. A study was accordingly conducted to investigate its application in the IT industry. Results show that teleworking is widely accepted by and plays an important role in software industry. With the rapid development in computer and telecommunications technology, telework has become increasingly populat and can not be avoided in IT industry. the benefits and problems brought by teleworking in IT industry are then reported in the study. It is found that the big obstruction for telework development in software engineering is still product quality problems. As many researchers have revealed, our society has entered the information society. The demand for more and more software products with better and better quality is increasing. However problems of software quality hinder the development of the IT industry. The recognised reason for this is the inability to manage the software process. Hence, many software process assessment and improvement models have been developed and used successfully in the management of software development in order to acquire improvements in software quality. However, the problem considered here is whether they are suitable for telework software development. To build the necessary ground knowledge for carrying out this project, an extensive analysis of the fundamental methodology and principles of existing software process assessment and improvement models was conducted. The strengths and weaknesses of these models are derived from the analysis. The applicability and adaptability of the models for teleworking environments are also explored. It is found that the existing models are designed for centralised software development. They are not fully suitable but the same functions are applicable for teleworking environments. The results of above discussion lead to the selection and recommendation of SPICE to be used as a baseline for the development of a process approach which meets the need of teleworking software environments. To lay a solid foundation for the development of such approach, two surveys were carried out. Their aims are investigate the current state of telework in IT industry and the applicability of the present models in teleworking environments, and to identify the specific issues which arise in telework. It can be observed from the survey that there are significant differences in software process and management methodologies between telework and conventional single-site work. Special technologies are needed to support telework software development. To provide valuable input in the development of such approach, an in-depth analysis of the specific requirements identified from the survey results in the creation of a set of processes and base practices, which are particularly required by teleworking environments. The SPITE approach, which is a SPICE extension model, is therefore developed as a major contribution to the software industry that fills an important gap in the software process modelling. Good comments have been obtained from a small range of organisations.

This thesis explores the intellectual social and collaborative nature of the domain of entrepreneurship in two related ways. First it uses bibliometric techniques to investigate the constitution of entrepreneurship. Specifically, author co-citation analysis establishes a collective view of the structure of the entrepreneurship literature - as perceived by its research active members. The co-citation frequencies of 78 prominent entrepreneurship researchers were analyzed using multivariate techniques. Cluster Analysis and Multidimensional Scaling were used to explore the intellectual structure of entrepreneurship research by identifying groups of scholars whose work falls into similar areas. Factor Analysis was then used to identify the underlying themes that characterize the domain. Second, the scholars within these nominal groupings were approached using individualiozed questionnaires to explore what social interactions might parallel, reflect or underpin the intellectual ones. The research is original in its contribution as this is the first time the technique of author co-citation analysis has been applied in the domain of entrepreneurship. To apply author co-citation analysis ito a relatively immature, emerging domain of study is, in itself, original and tests the technique in a new and experimental way. Additionally, the use of qualitative data - based on the results of the author co-citation analytis - validates and yields further insight into the initial results thus advancing the terchnique in the bibliometrics domain. The study demonstrates that there are real and robust social and collaborative networkd underlying the generation of the intellectual work which is cited jointly, by third parties. The latter authors may be unaware of these networks. Equally, the co-cited authors, while recognizing overlapping interests, may have difficulty in categorizing this commonality in their contributions. Entrepreneurship research is shown to be very much a social activity. As a whole, the thesis offers a novel insight into the nature of entrepreneurship derived from the domain's citing population.

In recent years a succession of food and health scares in the UK and elsewhere in Europe have resulted in consumers becoming more concerned about both the food they eat and aspects of the food chain over which they have little or no control. Many of these scares have been related to meat and meat products and, as a consequence, more and more people have reduced their meat consumption of have given up meat altogether. Although meat remains part of the diet for the majority of Europeans, the recent decline in the image of meat strongly suggests that there is now a real need for those involved in the meat industry to take steps to restore and retain consumer confidence in eating meat. This thesis investigates the factors which have had the most influence on meat consumption in Europe during the past two decades. The research is unique in that it takes both a multi-discliplinary and pan-European approach, examining economic and non-economic factors, as well as synthesising information from a variety of literature and statistical sources. Although the thesis is primarily concerned with meat consumption in the UK, reference is also made to the situation in some other Western European countries with emphasis on Germany. Comprehensive secondary research demonstrates how consumer issues are most likely to be responsible for recent changes in average per capita meat consumption. The importance of consumer attitudes is explored in depth, and consideration is given to various ways in which they can be measured and modelled. The results of attitudinal surveys are used to provide both a consumer and industry perspective of consumer attitudes to eating meat, and to highlight the importance of the consumer issues of healthy eating, food safety, animal welfare and vegetarianism. By testing Fishbein and Ajzen's Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) model, the consumer data confirm the hypothesis that consumer attitudes are important predictors of meat consumption. The concept of consumer confidence is discussed and a measure for it proposed. This enables consumer confidence to be incorporated into the TRA model, and thus provides a better understanding of the relationships between consumer confidence, consumer attitudes and meat consumption. It is proposed that rather than being another determinant of meat consumption, consumer confidence can best be conceptualised as the overall positive, negative or neutral feeling a consumer has towards eathing meat. The implications of the research findings for the many public and privately owned organisations associated with the meat industry are outlined. Based on the findings and conclusions of the thesis, an over-arching model, encapsulating the complex behaviour of meat consumption is proposed.

This PhD submission is by publication. It is based on the premise that marketing is fundamentally changing and evolving as a result of the impact of new technology. The conceptual ideas for the research emanated in 1998 and provided the basis for exploration until 1992. From wide ranging research it was found that company distribution strategies were changing as a result of the utilisation of cybermediaries. The Internet offers a cheaper and more radical marketing channel for smaller companies that can offer direct shipping to customers. In terms of undertaking research it was found that research on the Internet posed many problems that were related to individual skill sets, privacy considerations and the extent of email usage, including defunct email addresses. Company marketing effectiveness on the web depends on web capabilities that were identified and also the degree of co-ordination with designers. Companies also adopted reactive, interactive or passive marketing strategies depending on the time that they were in the Internet. Increasingly companies are also using the Internet for PR purposes. To this extent the accepted marketing paradigm of the four Ps is changing irrevocably. The diverse range of research methodologies, reflecting the post modern age and the limitations of the range of research is discussed. The thesis concludes by discussing how ethical marketing, customer relationship management (CRM), reputation and wireless communication are likely to change marketing strategies even further in the future.

Considering the importance of international activities for the small and medium-sized firms in the modern economy, the present research project tries to identify the degree in internationalisation and the main international marketing strategies used by the small and medium-sized biotechnology enterprises (SMBEs). The biotechnology sector cannot be considered as a homogenous industry, but rather as a series of different industrial applications centred around the specific use of biological organisms in producing and improving existent products and processes. Biotechnology is also a high technology sector, with complex and unpredictable changes in innovation financing and commercialisation. The specific characteristics of biotechnology products and markets increase the importance of international activities for the SMBEs. This research project investigates three main issues related to the process of globalisation: 1. What is the degree of globalisation of the UK SMBEs? 2. What are the international marketing strategies used by the UK SMBEs? 3. What are the role of the manager and the board of directors in the internationalisation process of the UK SMBEs? A number of research hypothesis related with these objectives were formulated. Using a large European base in order to identify the degree of SMBE's globalisation, the study concentrates later on UK firms alone. The reason for this choice is the high level of development of the UK biotechnology sector. In order to build a comprehensive model of the international marketing strategies used by the UK SMBEs, the degree of globalisation of the European SMBEs, the organisational and functional profile of these firms, as well as the main global regions in which they initiated and developed international operations has been initially investigated in the fist place. In the second stage, the main international marketing strategies used by the UK SMBEs have been identified. 7 Case studies of globalised and fully internationalised UK SMBEs, identified in the first stage, have been developed and are presented in the Part III of the thesis. The main elements that influence the design, implementation and control of international strategies were identified and analysed in order to build a complete picture of the strategic operational processes in biotechnology. The role of the management in the internationalisation process and the use of Internet technology to expand business activities were investigated and discussed in relation to their capacity in increasing the international competitiveness of biotech companies. The positive results obtained in this study as well as the interest and support shown by the industry, provide a good basis for the further development of research into biotechnology business. The novelty of biotechnology products and applications and the high dynamism of the market environment create the need for a permanent flow of information among industrialists, government representatives and academic. This can only help to increase the understanding of this sector, and to improve the competitiveness of UK Biotechnology worldwide.

This study focuses on the emergence of Multimedia technology and its subsequent application and effects on Computer Aided Learning. The growing interest in the pedagogical possibilities offered by Multimedia technology has highlighted the need for research in order to investigate those properties of Multimedia that may have an impact on instructional outcomes. The review of the literature indicated the key research issues as being the design, implementation and evaluation of courseware using the new technology. It is these key issues that form the core of the research presented here. More specifically the overall outcome of the research has been the proposal of a holistic model for the design, implementation and evaluation of hypermedia learning tools. The main objectives supported by appropriate hypotheses were defined as: Proposing a design process model for hypermedia courseware. Developing Market Research by Multimedia (MRM). Evaluating MRM as a means of course delivery. Evaluating the MRM design. MRM was developed based on the proposed Design and Development Process Model (DDPM) and subsequently evaluated. Using a summative method of evaluation based on observation and pre/post tests, 186 students from Kingston University's BIT and BABS courses were selected and randomly divided into the following four experimental groups. Group A - traditional lectures and tutorials, Group B- MRM only, Group C combined traditional lectures and Multimedia tutorials, and Group D - the Open Learning group . . A holistic model for the design, implementation and evaluation of Multimedia based courseware is proposed. The resultant model proposes the following four stages in the development of hypermedia learning tools as: 1. Defining the Learning Objectives - this research provides strong evidence to indicate that hypermedia offers flexibility as a learning tool and could be successfully implemented in a variety of learning programmes including: delivering courses, used as a tutorial tool, or replace open learning modes of delivery. This study has provided empirical support to suggest that MRM as a means of course delivery is as effective as traditional lectures and tutorials and significantly better than the Open Learning mode. 2. Defining the Design Strategy - the design issues are addressed by the DDPM and deal with systems specification, design specification, implementation and evaluation. Based on the research findings it is recommended that ease of use should be the key objective of the design. 3. Defining the Implementation Strategy - this research recommends that prtor to use directives to hypermedia courseware users both in terms of their time management and their navigational style should be offered. 4. Defining the Evaluation Strategy - two main forms of evaluations could be considered Le. formative and summative depending on the evaluation objectives. This research recommends that 'observation' of learners using hypermedia learning tools through built-in tracking systems could provide educators with invaluable information about the way the system is used. This research makes three important contributions to the body of knowledge on hypermedia aided learning. Firstly it proposes a holistic model for design, implementation and evaluation of hypermedia learning tools, secondly it proposes the DDPM as a specific hypermedia design model and thirdly it evaluates HAL as a means of course delivery.

This study aims to contribute to the advancement of knowledge within the domain of strategic marketing, and more specifically positioning of services. In particular this research stems from an attempt to overcome the limitations of existing positioning typologies and models and the fact that current research on the subject matter fails to reflect the sequential nature of considerations related to the management of the positioning process. Consequently, the basic aim of this research is the development of a comprehensive framework that incorporates the various decisions and activities associated with the management of positioning and the generation of managerial guidelines, for the UK services industry. Following an extensive literature review, a conceptual framework that represents a synthesis of existing positioning models is proposed. Following the development of generic positioning strategies, the model is applied in the UK plastic card sector. As a result, a number of propositions are tested and managerial recommendations are put forward. Overall, this research makes the following theoretical, methodological and managerial contributions to the theory and practice of positioning activities within the plastic card services domain. Theoretical Contributions: This thesis offers a comprehensive positioning framework which could form the basis of further investigation into the subject matter. More specifically, the following theoretical contributions to the study of positioning have been made: This thesis has attempted to examine the varying descriptions attributed to the concept and as a result has clarified the concept and suggested three main themes (i.e. perspectives, key issues and dimensions) underpinning the concept. This research has put forward an empirically supported comprehensive positioning model. Methodological Contributions: This research has developed and validated a generic, consumer derived typology of positioning strategies. Operationalisation of positioning aim(s), objective(s) and the determination of LCS have been offered. An analytical procedure suitable for determining congruence between successive phases of the proposed model has been developed. The operationalisation of LCS in the model has been expanded in terms of additional dimensions. Managerial Contributions: This research has provided a set of clearly defined, managerial guidelines that practitioners can use when attempting to apply the concept of positioning.

The purpose of this thesis is to understand the marketing perceptions and practices of primary school managers, in response to attempts to introduce market forces into the provision of UK state education. The study has investigated marketing in primary schools through ten longitudinal case studies using three main sources of data: interviews with headteachers, and governors, participant observation, and market research of the perceptions of parents and other groups. Two groups of influences combined to make diverse and complex marketing micro-environments, which conditioned the impact of marketing activities initiated by the schools: i) the local provision of primary education (the capacity, sector and status of schools, and the image of the locality), and ii) the population profile of the catchment area (numbers of local pupils, parental perceptions and population types). A picture of marketing at the case study schools emerged which was different from the initial impression of a peripheral activity given by much of the literature, and headteachers' own accounts. Critical incident analysis revealed more extensive strategies and tactics which could be labelled as “marketing”, but which were not necessarily described as such by headteachers. Events and decisions triggered marketing activities directed at a number of targets which can be grouped into the priority order of: i) internal relationships (existing parents, pupils, staff, and governors), ii) recruitment markets (new parents and feeder institutions), iii) educational agencies (LEA, DfEE, OFSTED etc.), and iv) community relationships (local media, commercial sponsors and community groups). Individuals within these target groups positioned a school according to their perceptions of its academic and environmental reputation, its locality and their degree of involvement with it. Headteachers attempted to improve their schools' market position through a mix of methods which can be summarised as four I's - information, image building, involvement, and the influence of word-of mouth communications. Headteachers found that the most effective marketing strategies had two main components: i) marketing to improve relationships with existing parents, staff and governors was an essential precursor to any external marketing effort; and ii) marketing to targets other than prospective pupils was important in order to build up a supportive series of relationships in the micro-environment. In particular, parental involvement strategies to achieve marketing aims evolved as an acceptable response because they were not seen as overtly competitive, and they had a perceived educational value. Headteachers seemed to share many of the marketing problems of owner-managers of small businesses. The findings reported here suggest that the private sector may have lessons to learn from the marketing management of small public organisations such as primary schools, so that a more meaningful exchange of information across the sectoral divide is indicated.

With ever more enterprises holding most of their text documents electronically, this research considers the implications that follow and the opportunities that are created by this situation. It introduces the notion of intelligent document management through enrichment as a novel interpretation of the Push Technology paradigm and develops a conceptual model for a software assistant that can carry out this enrichment task. Such an Intelligent Document Enriching Assistant, IDEA, will perform simple reasoning to retrieve, automatically, previously stored text documents which are relevant to the task at hand. However, before such an assistant can actually be implemented, the underlying concepts, which are taken from a range of topics on which such an IDEA is founded, have to be researched and assembled. This is what is of concern here, namely the analysis of the background on which the IDEA is based, together with the development of its conceptual model. The implementation of this knowledge-based component does not form part of this work. The semantic content of the text document needs to be captured using a representation that is richer than simple key words, and is based on Speech Act Theory. For the development of the conceptual model for the IDEA, the CommonKADS method is used. The main deliverable of this method is the model of expertise, which describes the knowledge, and the reasoning capabilities needed to carry out the required enrichment task. The generic enrichment problem solving method is also developed. The underlying domain knowledge is taken from a Sales and Marketing scenario. This research answers the call for good practice in Knowledge Management that requires the development of new knowledge, making accessible new and existing knowledge, and distributing and combining knowledge. The IDEA is an example of how intelligence, through the provision of relevant information, can be realised within this context.