Doctor of Philosophy / Biology / Michael A. Herman / Nematodes play an important role in various habitats where numerous factors serve to shape their communities. One such factor is the potentially pathogenic nematode-prey interaction. This project is focused on the elucidation of the genes that the bacterivorous nematode Caenorhabditis elegans employs to respond to the emerging nosocomial bacterial pathogen Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. A virulent S. maltophilia strain JCMS requires the action of several C. elegans conserved innate immune pathways that serve to protect the nematode from other pathogenic bacteria. However, insulin-like DAF-2/16 signaling pathway mutants that are typically pathogen resistant are susceptible to JCMS, and several DAF-2/16 regulated genes are not significantly differentially expressed between JCMS and avirulent E. coli OP50. We have determined the complete set of mRNA transcripts under different bacterial treatments to identify genes that might explain this JCMS specific DAF-2/16 pathway evasion. The identified set included 438 differentially expressed transcripts among pairwise comparisons of wild-type nematodes fed OP50, JCMS or avirulent S. maltophilia K279a. Candidate genes were nominated from this list of differentially expressed genes using a probabilistic functional connection model. Six of seven genes that were highly connected within a gene network generated from this model showed a significant effect on nematode survival by mutation. Of these genes, C48B4.1, mpk-2, cpr-4, clec-67 and lys-6 are needed for combating JCMS, while dod-22 was solely involved in K279a response. Only dod-22 had a documented role in innate immunity, which merits our approach in the identification of gene candidates. To a lesser extent, we have also focused on the identification of virulence factors and the mode of action employed by S. maltophilia. JCMS virulence requires rpfF, xps and involves living bacteria that accumulate in the intestinal lumen. Additionally, the bacterial secretion encoding genes cs, p773, p1176, pi1y1 and xdi are involved in JCMS evasion of daf-2. In summary, we have discovered a novel host-pathogen interaction between C. elegans and S. maltophilia JCMS, revealed genes that are involved in each partner of the interaction, and established a new animal model for the study of S. maltophilia mode of action.

Post translational modifications (PTMs) of histone tails are an important determinant of chromatin structure, and can act as key regulators of DNA-dependent processes. Methylation of histone 3 at lysine 4 (H3K4) is one of the most widely studied PTMs because of its correlation with transcription. Three methylation states exist at H3K4: mono-, di, and tri-methylation (H3K4me1, -me2, and -me3, respectively). Each methylation state occupies a distinct genomic position, supporting the view that the extent of methylation at H3K4 has a functional significance. However, the exact biological function of these three marks are not well understood. H3K4 methylation is written by SET domain-containing enzymes that function within SET/COMPASS/MLL complexes. Our lab has previously identified the SET-16 enzyme as writing H3K4me3 in C. elegans. The other well-characterised H3K4-specific methyl transferases in the worm is SET-2, an enzymes responsible for bulk H3K4me2/me3 levels. Using targeted RNAi screens, we have characterised the full landscape of SET domain enzymes affecting all three methylation states at H3K4 during embryogenesis in C. elegans (Chapter 3). Unexpectedly, many previously uncharacterised enzymes were identified as preferentially affecting each of the methylation states, including SET-19 that can deposit all three marks, and several candidates that preferentially affect H3K4me1: SET-30, SET-27, MES-2, and MES-4. During the project, Greer et al. 2014 independently identified two enzymes with activities targeting H3K4, SET-17 and SET-30, which were also candidates from our RNAi screens. With a focus on enzymes acting on H3K4me1, we demonstrate that H3K4me1 candidates can show different patterns of temporal regulation and also have roles in regulating soma versus germline cell-fate decisions (Chapter 4). Finally, we demonstrate a novel role for MES-2 (a methyltransferase enzyme with a highly conserved role in depositing repressive H3K27 methylation) in acting alongside the SPR-5 H3K4me2 demethylase to regulate levels of H3K4me1 during embryogenesis (Chapter 5).

PNPase is a gene implicated as a potential target for cancer therapy; human mutations also present with deafness, myopathies, and neuropathies. In this study, C. elegans was used to investigate the effect of knocking out PNPase in a whole animal. C. elegans knockdown studies have reported an extended lifespan via an increase in ROS production. Further noted are larger mitochondria and an increase in fzo-1 expression. Knockout animals previously constructed using CRISPR/Cas9 were used for this study. We aimed to confirm these findings validating previous studies. It was discovered that PNPase knockout animals demonstrated a similar lifespan extension that was resolved with the addition of antioxidants in the media. All subsequent findings contradicted those of the knockdown studies. Resequencing of knockout animals demonstrated no existing mutation and studies were discontinued. New mutants will advance future analyses and validate prior investigations.

Organisms are constantly challenged by the surrounding environment and alter their physiology accordingly. Some environment-induced changes in one generation are inherited in the offspring, and this long-lasting memory of parental experience has gained a lot of attention recently due to its implications in the organism's development and health. One example is transmission of RNAi-induced silencing from parents to progeny in C. elegans. Although this phenomenon has been known for more than a decade, the parental contribution to RNAi inheritance is still unclear. Here, we show that the nuclear hormone receptor DAF-12 mediates a cross-generational signaling that regulates RNAi in zygotes. Pol II ChIP-qPCR revealed that normally, DAF-12 enhances transcriptional repression induced by RNAi. Mutant analysis demonstrated that the role of DAF-12 in RNAi is distinct from its function in developmental timing or heterochronic pathways. Surprisingly, DAF-12 acts in mothers to alter the RNAi efficiency in zygotes, indicating the presence of mother-to-offspring, DAF-12-dependent signals that enhance RNAi in zygotes. Considering the previous studies showing that the function of DAF-12 is determined by environmental cues, we tested and found that the role of DAF-12 in RNAi enhancement in zygotes depends on the environmental cues presented to mothers during their development. These results demonstrate a novel role of DAF-12 as a modulator of RNAi and its contribution to cross-generational signaling. Moreover, the findings imply a potential interaction between environmental conditions and small RNA pathways.

Serial Analysis of Gene Expression (SAGE) on Caenorhabditis elegans RNA from FACS sorted embryonic body wall muscle cells has identified nearly 8000 genes expressed in nematode body wall muscle. Approximately 60% of these are genes are expressed at low levels (<5 tags/~50,000-100,000 tag library). Low-abundance transcripts have typically been overlooked since most are considered experimental or contamination errors. Consequently, research has been focused on transcripts that are most enriched in the particular tissue of interest. Here I focus on the analysis of low-expressed transcripts in the muscle SAGE libraries in order to investigate what percentage of these are in fact expressed in muscle and are not false positives. Most well characterized C. elegans body wall muscle genes are not expressed at low levels, therefore I anticipate that focusing on these rarely expressed genes will allow for the identification of muscle components that have been previously unrecognized. RT-PCR was performed on RNA isolated from purified body wall muscle cells to initially estimate what fraction of these low abundance transcripts present in the SAGE data are indeed expressed in muscle. I examined 128 genes, of which 84 were represented by a single SAGE tag. From this initial list, 38% of the low-expressed transcripts were verified for their presence in body wall muscle. Subsequently, reporter GFP fusions were used to deduce if these low-expressed transcripts are indeed expressed in vivo within muscle. Of the low-expressed genes that tested positive via RT-PCR, 42% showed in vivo expression in body wall muscle. When the results from the RT-PCR and in vivo expression experiments are combined, I can extrapolate that at least 16% of low-expressed genes identified by the SAGE libraries are in fact expressed in muscle and are not false positives. RNAi and knockout analysis were performed in order to investigate the role of low-expressed muscle genes in myofilament structure. RNAi results show that 14/34 (41%) of the genes screened had mild defects in myofilament organization. The SAGE libraries identified 6388 low-expressed transcripts, this work suggests that at least 16% (1022 genes) of these are in fact expressed in muscle and may reveal new components previously overlooked by other approaches. / Medicine, Faculty of / Medical Genetics, Department of / Graduate

The correct polarity of a neuron underlies its ability to integrate precise circuitries in the nervous system. The goal of my thesis was to investigate the pathways that establish and maintain neuron polarity/orientation in vivo. To accomplish this, I used bipolar VC4/5 motor neurons, which innervate the C. elegans egg-laying musculature, as a model system. Vulval proximal VC4/5 neurons extend axons in the left-right (LR) orientation, around the vulva; whereas vulval distal VC1-3,6 neurons extend axons along the anterior-posterior (AP) axis. A previous study showed that vang-1, a core planar cell polarity (PCP) gene, suppresses AP axon growth in VC4/5 neurons. In order to identify new components of this pathway we performed genetic screens for mutants with abnormal VC4/5 polarity/morphology. We isolated and mapped alleles of farnesyl transferase b (fntb-1) and of core PCP genes, prickle- 1 (prkl-1) and dishevelled-1 (dsh-1); all of which display tripolar VC4/5 neurons, similar to vang-1 lof. In prkl-1 and dsh-1 mutants, primary LR and ectopic AP VC4/5 axons are born simultaneously, suggesting an early role in establishing polarity. In addition, prkl-1 and dsh-1 act persistently to maintain neuron morphology/orientation. Genetic analysis of double mutants suggests that prkl-1 interacts with vang-1 in a common PCP pathway to prevent AP axon growth, while dsh-1 also acts in a parallel pathway. Furthermore, prkl-1 functions cell autonomously in neurons, whereas dsh-1 acts both cell autonomously and cell nonautonomously in epithelial cells. Notably, prkl-1 overexpression results in unipolar VC4/5 neurons, in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, dsh-1 overexpression in VC4/5 neurons results in a lof phenotype, similar to vang-1 lof and overexpression phenotype. Remarkably, prkl-1 overexpression restores normal VC4/5 polarity in dsh-1 and vang-1 mutants, which is suggestive of a downstream role for prkl-1. Both PRKL-1 and DSH-1 are expressed in iii uniformly distributed puncta at the plasma membrane of VC4/5, similar to VANG-1; suggesting that their asymmetric distribution is not critical for neuron polarity. Furthermore, we found that the vulva epithelium induces prkl-1 expression in VC4/5; indicating a functional relationship between the egg-laying organ and neuron morphology. Moreover, a structure-function analysis of PRKL-1 revealed that the conserved PET domain and the Cterminal region are crucial to prevent AP axon growth, whereas the three LIM domains are dispensable for this role. In addition, we showed that dsh-1 also regulates the morphology of AP-oriented PDE neurons. dsh-1 promotes the formation of PDE posterior axons, contrary to its function in VC5 neurons; which indicates a context-dependent role for dsh-1 in neuronal polarity. Altogether, this thesis implicates the PCP signalling pathway in a previously unknown role, in establishing and maintaining neuronal polarity, by controlling AP axon growth in response to organ-derived polarizing cues.

Neuropsychiatric disorders severely impact quality of life in millions of patients, contributing more Disease Affected Life Years (DALYs) than cancer or cardiovascular disease. The human brain is a complex system of 100 billion neurons connected by 100 trillion synapses, and human studies of neural disease focus on network-level circuit activity changes, rather than on cellular mechanisms. To probe for neural dynamics on the cellular level, animal models such as the nematode C. elegans have been used to investigate the biochemical and genetic factors contributing to neurological disease. C. elegans are ideal for neurophysiological studies due to their small nervous system, neurochemical homology to humans, and compatibility with non-invasive neural imaging. To better study the cellular mechanisms contributing to neurological disease, we developed automated analysis methods for characterizing the behaviors and associated neural activity during sleep and learning in C. elegans: two neural functions that involve a high degree of behavioral and neural plasticity. We developed two methods to study previously uncharacterized spontaneous adult sleep in C. elegans. A large microfluidic device facilitates population-wide assessment of long-term sleep behavior over 12 hours including effects of fluid flow, oxygen, feeding, odors, and genetic perturbations. Smaller devices allow simultaneous recording of sleep behavior and neuronal activity. Since the onset of adult sleep is stochastically timed, we developed a closed-loop sleep detection system that delivers chemical stimuli to individual animals during sleep and awake states to assess state-dependent changes to neural responses. Sleep increased the arousal threshold to aversive chemical stimulation, yet sensory neuron (ASH) and first-layer interneuron (AIB) responses were unchanged. This localizes adult sleep-dependent neuromodulation within interneurons presynaptic to the AVA premotor interneurons, rather than afferent sensory circuits. Traditionally, the study of learning in C. elegans observes taxis on agar plates which present variable environmental conditions that can lead to a reduction in test-to-test reproducibility. We also translated the butanone enhancement learning assay such that animals can be trained and tested all within the controlled environment of a microfluidic device. Using this system, we demonstrated that C. elegans are capable of associative learning by observing stimulus evoked behavioral responses, rather than taxis. This system allows for more reproducible results and can be used to seamlessly study stimulus-evoked neural plasticity associated with learning. Together, these systems provide platforms for studying the connections between behavioral plasticity and neural circuit modulation in sleep and learning. We can use these systems to further our understanding of the mechanisms underlying neural regulation, function, and disorder using human disease models in C. elegans.

Maintaining cells in an undifferentiated totipotent state is essential for initiating developmental programs that lead to a fully formed organism in each generation and for maintaining immortal germ cells across generations. Caenorhabditis elegans is a powerful genetic model organism to study early germ cell development due to the animal’s transparency and the ability to screen for mutant phenotypes. However, our ability to use standard techniques to study gene expression using fluorescent reporter genes has been limited due to germline-specific silencing mechanisms that repress transgenes. Therefore, we lack even basic knowledge of how expression is regulated in C. elegans germ cells. In this study, we develop methods to overcome these silencing mechanisms by using a class of noncoding DNA, called Periodic An/Tn Clusters (PATCs), to prevent transgene silencing in the germline. We use these improved tools to test the proposed role of putative germline-specific regulatory DNA motifs and the role a periodic TT signal within germline promoters. We fused GFP to the promoter of a germline expressed gene (pcn-1), which is enriched for PATCs and contains a germline-specific motif (TTAAAG). Our results show that despite enrichment and phylogenetic conservation, the TTAAAG motif is not required for germline expression. To test additional motifs and periodic TTs, we have designed a system that will allow us to test synthetic gene fragments for bi-directional germline expression. These tools will allow us to rapidly test motif redundancy, motif spacing, and TT periodicity using gfp and rfp signals in the germline and will enable experiments aimed at understanding the role of germline regulatory elements.

Proper synaptic connectivity is critical for communication between cells and information processing in the brain. Neurons are highly interconnected, forming synapses with multiple partners, and these connections are often refined during the course of development. While decades of research have elucidated many molecular players that regulate these processes, understanding their specific roles can be difficult due to the large number of synapses and complex circuitry in the brain. In this thesis, I investigate mechanisms that establish neural circuits in the simple organism C. elegans, allowing us to address this important problem with single cell resolution in vivo. First, I investigate remodeling of excitatory synapses during development. I show that the immunoglobulin domain protein OIG-1 alters the timing of remodeling, demonstrating that OIG-1 stabilizes synapses in early development but is less critical for the formation of mature synapses. Second, I explore how presynaptic excitatory neurons instruct inhibitory synaptic connectivity. My work shows that disruption of cholinergic neurons alters the pattern of connectivity in partnering GABAergic neurons, and defines a time window during development in which cholinergic signaling appears critical. Lastly, I define novel postsynaptic specializations in GABAergic neurons that bear striking similarity to dendritic spines, and show that presynaptic nrx-1/neurexin is required for the development of spiny synapses. In contrast, cholinergic connectivity with their other postsynaptic partners, muscle cells, does not require nrx-1/neurexin. Thus, distinct molecular signals govern connectivity with these two cell types. Altogether, my findings identify fundamental principles governing synapse development in both the developing and mature nervous system.

The vitamin B3 precursor nicotinamide riboside (NR) and the ketone DL-body beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) are two of the most promising natural compounds yet identified for the treatment of aging and aging-related diseases. NR increases nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) levels to activate sirtuin protein deacetylases and BHB is an anti-aging calorie restriction (CR) mimetic. Caenorhabditis elegans is a 1 mm long nematode worm used as a model system to study aging with a mean lifespan of roughly 2-3 weeks depending upon the exact temperature of culture. NR and BHB have previously been shown to increase lifespan when administered to C. elegans by roughly 20%. However, the effect on lifespan when both compounds are added together has not yet been studied. It is hypothesized that when added together the effect on lifespan will be slightly larger than when either compound is given alone, due to the activation of complementary signaling pathways. The results will help determine if humans could benefit from taking both compounds simultaneously as most signaling pathways that regulate lifespan are conserved from nematodes to humans. For these experiments cultures of mixed age C. elegans nematodes were first treated with alkaline-bleach to kill adult worms leaving only eggs that are protected by their thick eggshell. Using this protocol isolated eggs are age-synchronized to within 9 hours of each other. The eggs were then transferred into E. coli-permeable, but nematode impermeable 8 micron cell culture inserts placed in twelve well microplates with roughly 25-40 eggs per insert. 1.35 mL of liquid S-media containing 9 x109 E. coli cells/mL as food was added to each well. Microplates were shaken to provide culture aeration. After three days, the worms reached adulthood and 0.4 mM fluorodeoxyuridine (FUdR), a DNA synthesis inhibitor, was added to prevent C. elegans egg-laying to maintain age-synchrony. Every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for the approximate 4 weeks of the lifespan experiments the worms were counted under a microscope and the culture media and bacteria replaced. Results were analyzed using Kaplan-Meier survival curves and Log-rank analysis. Results indicated that individual treatment with BHB or NR or both combined increased lifespan in the two trials performed thus far. Another trial is currently underway, and results will be analyzed after it is completed to determine if the combined treatment has a greater benefit on lifespan then either individual treatment. Future studies could also be performed to determine if either NR or BHB can further extend the lifespan of animals given rapamycin, a TOR kinase inhibitor, another promising anti-aging therapeutic.