Les maladies neurodégénératives se caractérisent par une déconnexion synaptique et une dégénérescence des axones (DA) précoces, menant à la mort spécifique d’une population neuronale. Les niveaux intracellulaires de NAD+, co-facteur essentiel dans le maintien de l’intégrité axonale, sont fortement diminués lors de ces pathologies. L’augmentation des taux de NAD+ est ainsi une stratégie thérapeutique dans la prévention de ces maladies. La capacité du nicotinamide riboside (NR) à retarder la DA dans le système nerveux périphérique (SNP) ainsi que la récente mise en évidence d'une conversion extracellulaire du NAD+ en NR dans des lignées cellulaires et dans le SNP soulignent l'intérêt de ce précurseur du NAD+. Mon projet de thèse repose sur la caractérisation des effets du NAD+ et du NR lors de la DA dans des neurones du système nerveux central (SNC). A partir d'un modèle d'excitotoxicité mis au point en dispositifs microfluidiques, nous montrons pour la première fois que le NR protège de la DA dans des neurones corticaux de manière plus efficace que le NAD+. Cet effet différentiel a également été validé dans un modèle ischémique in vivo. De manière surprenante, lors d'une neurodégénérescence induite par une déplétion aigüe en NAD+, un effet protecteur total à la fois du NAD+ et du NR a été mis en évidence. L'analyse de la voie de conversion extracellulaire a ainsi révélée une adaptation du métabolisme du NAD+ et de sa conversion en NR en fonction du paradigme neurotoxique. En conclusion, ce travail démontre un fort effet protecteur du NR dans le SNC et ouvre de nouvelles voies thérapeutiques dans la prévention des processus neurodégénératifs. / Synaptic and axonal degeneration (AxD) are major events in neurodegenerative diseases. Levels of NAD+, an important coenzyme for axonal integrity, are strongly reduced in different degeneration models so enhancing cellular NAD+ is one of the numerous therapeutic strategies against neuronal pathologies. Nicotinamide riboside (NR) is a good NAD+ precursor as it has already been shown to delay AxD in peripheral nervous system (PNS) and extracellular NAD+ conversion to NR was previously described in cell lines and in PNS. During my thesis project, we analyzed the role of NR metabolism to prevent degeneration processes in cortical neurons. Using an excitotoxicity model developed in microfluidic devices, we showed for the first time that both NAD+ and NR delay AxD in cortical neurons, with a more potent effect for NR. We confirm this differential effect in an in vivo ischemic model. Moreover, NR effect is mainly restricted to the axonal compartment and intracellular NAD+ depletion is reverted after NR application, suggesting that axonal integrity is totally dependent on NAD+ local metabolism. Furthermore, in a complete NAD+ depletion paradigm, NAD+ and NR have surprisingly the same strong effect, protecting equally neuronal death and AxD. Examination of the extracellular pathway suggest that NAD+ conversion to NR is limited in excitotoxicity but effective in the NAD+ depletion model. These results reveal that NR and NAD+ metabolism depend on the neurotoxic paradigm. Our results demonstrate that NR has a strong and local neuroprotective effect on AxD in several neurotoxic processes. These findings open new therapeutic strategies to prevent neurodegenerative diseases.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is a cofactor in hydride transfer reactions and consumed substrate of several classes of glycohydrolyitc enzymes, including sirtuins. NAD+, its biosynthetic intermediates, breakdown products, and related nucleotides (the NAD metabolome) is altered in many metabolic disorders, such as aging and obesity. Supplementation with the novel NAD+ precursor, nicotinamide riboside (NR), ameliorates these alterations and opposes systemic metabolic dysfunctions in rodent models. Based on the hypothesis that perturbations of the NAD metabolome are both a symptom and cause of metabolic disease, accurate assessment of the abundance of these metabolites is expected to provide insight into the biology of diseases and the mechanism of action of NR in promoting metabolic health. Current quantitative methods, such as HPLC, lack specificity and sensitivity to detect distinct alterations to the NAD metabolome. In this thesis, I developed novel sensitive, accurate, robust liquid chromatography mass spectrometry methodologies to quantify the NAD metabolome and applied these methods to determine the effects of disease states and NR supplementation on NAD+ metabolism. My investigations indicate that NR robustly increases the NAD metabolome, especially NAD+ in a manner kinetically different than any other NAD+ precursor. I provide the first evidence of effective NAD+ supplementation from NR in a healthy, 52 year old human male, suggesting the metabolic promoting qualities of NR uncovered in rodent studies are translatable to humans. During my investigation of NR supplementation, my work establishes an unexpected robust, dramatic increase in deamino–NAD+, NAAD, directly from NR, which I argue could serve as an accessible biomarker for efficacious NAD+ supplementation and the effect of disease upon the NAD metabolome. Lastly, I further establish NR as a general therapeutic against metabolic disorder by detailing its ability to oppose aspects of chronic alcoholism and diabetes mellitus.

Age-related increases in arterial stiffness are mediated in part by mitochondrial dysfunction. Sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) is a mitochondrial NAD+-dependent deacetylase that regulates mitochondrial function. SIRT3 deficiency contributes to physiological dysfunction in a variety of pathological conditions. Here, we tested the hypothesis that age-associated arterial stiffness, assessed by aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV), would be accompanied with decreased renal and aortic SIRT3 expression and activity due to decreased NAD+ levels. We further tested whether boosting NAD+ concentration with nicotinamide riboside (NR), a NAD+ precursor, for 6 months would reverse the effects of aging. Old (~26 mo, n = 9) C57BL/6 male mice had higher PWV vs. young (6 mo, n = 10) (448 ± 14 vs 382 ± 13, p < 0.005), which was associated with reduced arterial SIRT3 protein (0.365 ± 0.088 AU’s vs 1.000 ± 0.000); p < 0.05). Furthermore, SIRT3 deficient male mice demonstrated higher PWV compared to age-matched control mice (480 ± 21 n = 6 vs. 391 ±12 n = 7, p < 0.005). Aortic SIRT3 protein was negatively correlated with PWV (r=-0.7798, p < 0.005). Old mice also exhibited reduced kidney SIRT3 protein (0.73 ± 0.10 AU’s) compared to young controls (1.00 ± 0.00; p = 0.0192) and reduced NAD+ (918.6 ± 50.5 pmol/mg vs. young 1302.0 ± 56.6 pmol/mg, p = 0.0036). Old mice supplemented with NR had increased NAD+ concentration in kidney tissue (1303.0 ± 90.2 pmol/mg) however, had no effect on normalizing age-associated arterial stiffness (402 ± 18 old with NR vs 418 ± 15 old; p = 0.78). Here we show for that SIRT3 protein correlates with aortic stiffness and may be required for the maintenance of healthy arteries and for the first time that supplementation with NR, a commercially available supplement, ameliorates age-associated decreases in renal NAD+ demonstrating therapeutic potential in kidney disease.

The vitamin B3 precursor nicotinamide riboside (NR) and the ketone DL-body beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) are two of the most promising natural compounds yet identified for the treatment of aging and aging-related diseases. NR increases nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) levels to activate sirtuin protein deacetylases and BHB is an anti-aging calorie restriction (CR) mimetic. Caenorhabditis elegans is a 1 mm long nematode worm used as a model system to study aging with a mean lifespan of roughly 2-3 weeks depending upon the exact temperature of culture. NR and BHB have previously been shown to increase lifespan when administered to C. elegans by roughly 20%. However, the effect on lifespan when both compounds are added together has not yet been studied. It is hypothesized that when added together the effect on lifespan will be slightly larger than when either compound is given alone, due to the activation of complementary signaling pathways. The results will help determine if humans could benefit from taking both compounds simultaneously as most signaling pathways that regulate lifespan are conserved from nematodes to humans. For these experiments cultures of mixed age C. elegans nematodes were first treated with alkaline-bleach to kill adult worms leaving only eggs that are protected by their thick eggshell. Using this protocol isolated eggs are age-synchronized to within 9 hours of each other. The eggs were then transferred into E. coli-permeable, but nematode impermeable 8 micron cell culture inserts placed in twelve well microplates with roughly 25-40 eggs per insert. 1.35 mL of liquid S-media containing 9 x109 E. coli cells/mL as food was added to each well. Microplates were shaken to provide culture aeration. After three days, the worms reached adulthood and 0.4 mM fluorodeoxyuridine (FUdR), a DNA synthesis inhibitor, was added to prevent C. elegans egg-laying to maintain age-synchrony. Every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for the approximate 4 weeks of the lifespan experiments the worms were counted under a microscope and the culture media and bacteria replaced. Results were analyzed using Kaplan-Meier survival curves and Log-rank analysis. Results indicated that individual treatment with BHB or NR or both combined increased lifespan in the two trials performed thus far. Another trial is currently underway, and results will be analyzed after it is completed to determine if the combined treatment has a greater benefit on lifespan then either individual treatment. Future studies could also be performed to determine if either NR or BHB can further extend the lifespan of animals given rapamycin, a TOR kinase inhibitor, another promising anti-aging therapeutic.

La cardiomyopathie dilatée (CMD) est caractérisée par une fraction d’éjection (FE) réduite, une fonction systolique altérée, une désorganisation de la matrice extracellulaire et des défauts métaboliques. Dans différents modèles de CMD, le niveau d’expression de la nicotinamide riboside kinase 2 (Nmrk2) impliquée dans la synthèse du NAD, un coenzyme majeur du métabolisme énergétique et une molécule de signalisation, est augmenté. NMRK2 est identique à « Muscle Integrin Binding Protein » se liant à l’hétérodimère intégrine β1/α7. Le rôle de Nmrk2 dans le cœur n’est pas connu. Les souris Nmrk2-KO jeunes développent une réponse hypertrophique concentrique normale en réponse à l’angiotensine II et à la constriction aortique. Les échocardiographies jusque 8 semaines post-TAC et au cours du vieillissement à l’état basal, montrent une diminution plus sévère de la FE et un développement de CMD. Les RT-QPCR montrent une augmentation du niveau d’expression de l’isoforme lente β de myosine. NMRK2 n’est pas requise pour maintenir le taux de NAD dans le cœur en réponse aux traitements pro-hypertrophiques et à un âge jeune. Par contre, au cours du vieillissement, les niveaux d’expression de Nmrk1 et Nampt sont diminués et à 24 mois, le NAD myocardique est réduit de 50% chez les souris Nmrk2-KO. A ce même âge, le complexe α7β1 est réduit. Les analyses histologiques montrent un défaut du dépôt de la laminine, la présence d’une fibrose et un élargissement de l’espace intercellulaire chez le mutant Nmrk2-KO. NMRK2 est requise pour préserver la fonction et la structure cardiaque et l’homéostasie du NAD à un âge avancé. Des composants moléculaires modulant sa voie pourraient être une option thérapeutique. / Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a severe heart disease characterized by reduced ejection fraction, altered systolic function, extracellular matrix disorganization and metabolic defects. In different mice models of DCM, the expression of the nicotinamide riboside kinase 2 (Nmrk2) implicated in the synthesis of NAD, a major coenzyme in energy metabolism and a signaling molecule, is increased. NMRK2 is similar to the muscle integrin binding protein (MIBP) that binds to the integrin α7β1 heterodimer. The role of Nmrk2 in the heart is unknown. Young Nmrk2-KO mice develop a normal cardiac hypertrophic response to angiotensin-II exposure and transverse aorta constriction (TAC) but follow-up echocardiography until 8 weeks post-TAC and during aging from 5 to 24 months revealed a more severe decrease in the EF and the development of a DCM phenotype. RT-qPCR analysis of cardiac mRNAs showed an increase in the slow, cardiac, β myosin heavy chain isoform starting at 12 months. NMRK2 was not essential to maintain myocardial NAD levels in response to pro-hypertrophic treatments and in young adults. However Nmrk1 and Nampt expression level declined strongly with aging and Nmrk2-KO mice displayed a 50% reduction in myocardial NAD levels at 24 months. The α7β1 integrin complex was repressed at this age. Immunofluorescent analyses and electron microscopy revealed a defect in laminin deposition and enlarged intercellular space in the Nmrk2-KO heart. The Nmrk2 gene is required to preserve cardiac function and structure during aging and becomes indispensable for maintaining NAD at late age. Molecular characterization of compounds modulating this pathway could give future therapeutic prospect.

Over the past few years the NAD-related compounds nicotinamide (NAM), nicotinamide riboside (NR) and 1-methylnicotinamide (MNA) have been established as important molecules in signalling pathways that contribute to metabolic functions of many cells, including those of the immune system. Among immune cells, monocytes/macrophages, which are the major players of inflammatory processes, are especially susceptible to the anti-inflammatory action of NAM. Here we asked whether NAM and the two other compounds have the potential to regulate differentiation and LPS-induced biological answers of the monocytic cell line THP-1. We show that treatment of THP-1 cells with NAM, NR and MNA resulted in growth retardation accompanied by enrichment of cells in the G0/G1-phase independent of p21 and p53. NAM and NR caused an increase in intracellular NAD concentrations and SIRT1 and PARP1 mRNA expression was found to be enhanced. The compounds failed to up-regulate the expression of the cell surface differentiation markers CD38, CD11b and CD14. They modulated the reactive oxygen species production and primed the cells to respond less effectively to the LPS induced TNF-a production. Our data show that the NAD metabolites interfere with early events associated with differentiation of THP-1 cells along the monocytic path and that they affect LPS-induced biological responses of the cell line.

Over the past few years the NAD-related compounds nicotinamide (NAM), nicotinamide riboside (NR) and 1-methylnicotinamide (MNA) have been established as important molecules in signalling pathways that contribute to metabolic functions of many cells, including those of the immune system. Among immune cells, monocytes/macrophages, which are the major players of inflammatory processes, are especially susceptible to the anti-inflammatory action of NAM. Here we asked whether NAM and the two other compounds have the potential to regulate differentiation and LPS-induced biological answers of the monocytic cell line THP-1. We show that treatment of THP-1 cells with NAM, NR and MNA resulted in growth retardation accompanied by enrichment of cells in the G0/G1-phase independent of p21 and p53. NAM and NR caused an increase in intracellular NAD concentrations and SIRT1 and PARP1 mRNA expression was found to be enhanced. The compounds failed to up-regulate the expression of the cell surface differentiation markers CD38, CD11b and CD14. They modulated the reactive oxygen species production and primed the cells to respond less effectively to the LPS induced TNF-α production. Our data show that the NAD metabolites interfere with early events associated with differentiation of THP-1 cells along the monocytic path and that they affect LPS-induced biological responses of the cell line.

The nicotinamide riboside (NR) form of vitamin B3and the ketone body ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) are two of the most promising natural compounds yet identified for the treatment of aging and aging-related diseases. Forms of vitamin B3are precursors for the synthesis of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(H)) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP(H)). In aged cells levels of NAD+decline, decreasing metabolism and decreasing activity of protective sirtuin protein deacetylases. In aged cells NR, but not more common forms of vitamin B3, boost NAD+levels. BHB is naturally produced by the body when individuals fast or consume a ketogenic (KD) or calorically restricted (CR) diet. These diets have been shown to extend lifespan in mice, while they are also protective in many disease models. Caenorhabditis elegans, a roundworm with a short mean lifespan of roughly 2 to 3 weeks depending upon the temperature, is used as a model system to study aging. BHB has been previously shown to increase lifespan by roughly 20% when administered to C. elegans.We administered NR and BHB individually and together to C. elegans starting at two different developmental stages (larval stages 1 and 4) and measured lifespan. We found that administration of 20 mM DL-BHB decreased lifespan when first given at the L1 stage, while it robustly increased lifespan when first given at the L4 stage. Administration of 0.5 mM NR increased lifespan when first given at L1, with only a very slight increase when first given at L4. When initiating administration at L1, NR greatly mitigated the BHB-mediated decline in longevity, however, NR did not increase BHB-mediated lifespan extension when first administered at L4.

Supplementation with nicotinamide riboside (NR), a form of vitamin B3 and a precursor of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) extends lifespan in the nematode C. elegans and delays aging-related pathologies in mammals. During aging, levels of NAD+ decline causing metabolic dysfunction and oxidative damage. Studies in C. elegans found that when NR was administered during larval development it induced the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt), which is frequently associated with lifespan extension. Both calorie restriction (CR) and ketogenic diets (KD) have been shown to extend lifespan, in part through increasing NAD+ and through increasing levels of the pro-longevity ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB). In a previous study from my lab, NR increased C. elegans lifespan to a much larger extent when administered starting at the L1 larval stage as compared to when started at the L4 larval stage. Conversely, a high dose of BHB greatly increased lifespan when administered starting at the L4 stage. But this same dose decreased lifespan when it was first administered at the L1 stage. I further found that NR greatly extended lifespan when only administered during larval development and that the combination of both individual pro-longevity NR and BHB treatments significantly decreased lifespan. These chemical epistasis experiments suggest that NR and BHB function in parallel pathways to extend C. elegans lifespan through a common downstream target with hormesis playing a role. Therefore, human subjects who supplement with both NAD+ precursors and ketone esters should be aware of possible negative interactions when high doses of both are administered.