Information about large mammals in Turkey usually does not go further than species lists or annual counts of particular species such as the wild goat. Camera trapping is a very useful technique to overcome this deficiency by gathering information about species presence, numbers, habitat use and behavior. Hence, a one year long camera trap study was conducted to demonstrate the diversity, activity, distribution patterns, habitat preferences and interspecific interactions of medium and large mammals in a 148 km2 large pine woodland near Ankara. Brown bear (Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis lupus), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), golden jackal (Canis aureus), jungle cat (Felis chaus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Eurasian badger (Meles meles), stone marten (Martes foina), red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), brown hare (Lepus europaeus), Caucasian squirrel (Sciurus anomalus) and southern white-breasted hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor) were the 13 mammal species captured during the study. Spatial segregation was observed among canid species indicating intraguild competition and competitive exclusion. Prey-predator interactions were documented at both spatial and temporal scales between wolves, deer and wild boars. Red deer showed seasonal and sex differences in activity patterns that appeared to be influenced by wolf predation risk. The presence of two felids unknown to the local people were revealed by camera trapping, showing the utility of this technique for such secretive and rare species. However, the low encounter rates for particular species such as lynx, brown bear and jungle cat indicated the importance of the length of study. Based on various evidence, resident adult population sizes were estimated for wolf (2-5), Eurasian lynx (2-4), brown bear (0-2) and jungle cat (2-3). The study showed that lynx can exist in high densities in a relatively small area when prey species are abundant. This study area hosted a rich mammal fauna in spite of human activities such as livestock grazing, logging and hunting. A relatively intact ecosystem, high altitudinal and habitat diversity, and a positive attitude of local people are believed to be the reasons of this observed high diversity.

Compreender os mecanismos que causam variações espaço-temporais na diversidade biológica é uma das principais atribuições da ecologia. A teoria clássica de nicho prediz que o gradiente ambiental e sua complexidade mediam processos cruciais na estruturação das assembléias locais, permitindo a coexistência das espécies. A associação entre fatores espaciais e ambientais e diversidade inventário e diversidade diferenciação de mamíferos Neotropicais, tem sido usualmente investigada por estudos de resolução grosseira. Assim, o efeito do gradiente ambiental em resolução fina, ainda é praticamente desconhecido. Neste trabalho, eu investiguei os efeitos de processos ambientais, espaciais e ambientais espacialmente estruturados sobre a diversidade α e β de mamíferos, em uma área de aproximadamente de 1.100,42 km2 no norte do Pantanal, a maior área úmida contínua do planeta. Utilizei um método de análise espacial chamado Análise de Coordenadas Principais de Matrizes Vizinhas e modelos lineares para descrever as contribuições desses processos. Os resultados demostram que fatores ambientais e espaciais, em conjunto, são mais importantes do que os efeitos independentes de cada fator, tanto para a diversidade α quanto para a β. O modelo completo explicou 18% da variação na diversidade α e 41% da variação na diversidade β. A diversidade β estimada foi negativamente relacionada com a diversidade α estimada. A diversidade β observada foi positivamente relacionada com a variação da estrutura de habitas entre sítios, embora o modelo tenha explicado uma porcentagem pequena da variação total. Os dados sugerem que embora os grandes mamíferos neotropicais sejam considerados espécies generalistas, eles não ocorrem de forma homogênea ao longo do gradiente, criado pelo mosaico da paisagem pantaneira, e que o papel da variação de nicho espacial é fundamental para manter a riqueza específica em nível regional. / Comprehending the mechanism that causes spatial-temporal variation in biological diversity is at the core of ecological inquiry. Classical niche theory states that environmental gradient and complexity mediate crucial processes that structure local assemblages, allowing species to co-exist. The association between spatial and environmental factors and mammalian inventory or differentiation diversity in the Neotropics, has been usually investigated by coarse grain studies, thus the effect of fine grain effects on mammalian diversity still largely unappreciated. In this paper, I investigated the effects of environmental, spatial, and spatially structured environmental processes on mammalian α- and β-diversity in an area of approximately 1,100.42 km2 in the northern Pantanal, the largest continuous wetland on Earth. I used a spatial analysis method called Principal Coordinates of Neighbor Matrices analysis and linear models to depict the contributions of these processes. The results show that environmental and spatial factors, jointly, are more important than the independent effects of each factor for both, α- and β-diversity. The full model accounted for 18% of the variation in α- diversity and 41% of the variation in β-diversity. Estimated β-diversity decreased with estimated α-diversity. Observed β-diversity increased with site distinctness, although the model had a poor fit and explained a small amount of the total variance. My data suggests that although most large Neotropical mammals are broadly distributed and considered plastic species, they do not occur homogeneously across the landscape, and that the role of spatial niche is critical to maintain species richness at the landscape level.

Compreender os mecanismos que causam variações espaço-temporais na diversidade biológica é uma das principais atribuições da ecologia. A teoria clássica de nicho prediz que o gradiente ambiental e sua complexidade mediam processos cruciais na estruturação das assembléias locais, permitindo a coexistência das espécies. A associação entre fatores espaciais e ambientais e diversidade inventário e diversidade diferenciação de mamíferos Neotropicais, tem sido usualmente investigada por estudos de resolução grosseira. Assim, o efeito do gradiente ambiental em resolução fina, ainda é praticamente desconhecido. Neste trabalho, eu investiguei os efeitos de processos ambientais, espaciais e ambientais espacialmente estruturados sobre a diversidade α e β de mamíferos, em uma área de aproximadamente de 1.100,42 km2 no norte do Pantanal, a maior área úmida contínua do planeta. Utilizei um método de análise espacial chamado Análise de Coordenadas Principais de Matrizes Vizinhas e modelos lineares para descrever as contribuições desses processos. Os resultados demostram que fatores ambientais e espaciais, em conjunto, são mais importantes do que os efeitos independentes de cada fator, tanto para a diversidade α quanto para a β. O modelo completo explicou 18% da variação na diversidade α e 41% da variação na diversidade β. A diversidade β estimada foi negativamente relacionada com a diversidade α estimada. A diversidade β observada foi positivamente relacionada com a variação da estrutura de habitas entre sítios, embora o modelo tenha explicado uma porcentagem pequena da variação total. Os dados sugerem que embora os grandes mamíferos neotropicais sejam considerados espécies generalistas, eles não ocorrem de forma homogênea ao longo do gradiente, criado pelo mosaico da paisagem pantaneira, e que o papel da variação de nicho espacial é fundamental para manter a riqueza específica em nível regional. / Comprehending the mechanism that causes spatial-temporal variation in biological diversity is at the core of ecological inquiry. Classical niche theory states that environmental gradient and complexity mediate crucial processes that structure local assemblages, allowing species to co-exist. The association between spatial and environmental factors and mammalian inventory or differentiation diversity in the Neotropics, has been usually investigated by coarse grain studies, thus the effect of fine grain effects on mammalian diversity still largely unappreciated. In this paper, I investigated the effects of environmental, spatial, and spatially structured environmental processes on mammalian α- and β-diversity in an area of approximately 1,100.42 km2 in the northern Pantanal, the largest continuous wetland on Earth. I used a spatial analysis method called Principal Coordinates of Neighbor Matrices analysis and linear models to depict the contributions of these processes. The results show that environmental and spatial factors, jointly, are more important than the independent effects of each factor for both, α- and β-diversity. The full model accounted for 18% of the variation in α- diversity and 41% of the variation in β-diversity. Estimated β-diversity decreased with estimated α-diversity. Observed β-diversity increased with site distinctness, although the model had a poor fit and explained a small amount of the total variance. My data suggests that although most large Neotropical mammals are broadly distributed and considered plastic species, they do not occur homogeneously across the landscape, and that the role of spatial niche is critical to maintain species richness at the landscape level.

Compreender os mecanismos que causam variações espaço-temporais na diversidade biológica é uma das principais atribuições da ecologia. A teoria clássica de nicho prediz que o gradiente ambiental e sua complexidade mediam processos cruciais na estruturação das assembléias locais, permitindo a coexistência das espécies. A associação entre fatores espaciais e ambientais e diversidade inventário e diversidade diferenciação de mamíferos Neotropicais, tem sido usualmente investigada por estudos de resolução grosseira. Assim, o efeito do gradiente ambiental em resolução fina, ainda é praticamente desconhecido. Neste trabalho, eu investiguei os efeitos de processos ambientais, espaciais e ambientais espacialmente estruturados sobre a diversidade α e β de mamíferos, em uma área de aproximadamente de 1.100,42 km2 no norte do Pantanal, a maior área úmida contínua do planeta. Utilizei um método de análise espacial chamado Análise de Coordenadas Principais de Matrizes Vizinhas e modelos lineares para descrever as contribuições desses processos. Os resultados demostram que fatores ambientais e espaciais, em conjunto, são mais importantes do que os efeitos independentes de cada fator, tanto para a diversidade α quanto para a β. O modelo completo explicou 18% da variação na diversidade α e 41% da variação na diversidade β. A diversidade β estimada foi negativamente relacionada com a diversidade α estimada. A diversidade β observada foi positivamente relacionada com a variação da estrutura de habitas entre sítios, embora o modelo tenha explicado uma porcentagem pequena da variação total. Os dados sugerem que embora os grandes mamíferos neotropicais sejam considerados espécies generalistas, eles não ocorrem de forma homogênea ao longo do gradiente, criado pelo mosaico da paisagem pantaneira, e que o papel da variação de nicho espacial é fundamental para manter a riqueza específica em nível regional. / Comprehending the mechanism that causes spatial-temporal variation in biological diversity is at the core of ecological inquiry. Classical niche theory states that environmental gradient and complexity mediate crucial processes that structure local assemblages, allowing species to co-exist. The association between spatial and environmental factors and mammalian inventory or differentiation diversity in the Neotropics, has been usually investigated by coarse grain studies, thus the effect of fine grain effects on mammalian diversity still largely unappreciated. In this paper, I investigated the effects of environmental, spatial, and spatially structured environmental processes on mammalian α- and β-diversity in an area of approximately 1,100.42 km2 in the northern Pantanal, the largest continuous wetland on Earth. I used a spatial analysis method called Principal Coordinates of Neighbor Matrices analysis and linear models to depict the contributions of these processes. The results show that environmental and spatial factors, jointly, are more important than the independent effects of each factor for both, α- and β-diversity. The full model accounted for 18% of the variation in α- diversity and 41% of the variation in β-diversity. Estimated β-diversity decreased with estimated α-diversity. Observed β-diversity increased with site distinctness, although the model had a poor fit and explained a small amount of the total variance. My data suggests that although most large Neotropical mammals are broadly distributed and considered plastic species, they do not occur homogeneously across the landscape, and that the role of spatial niche is critical to maintain species richness at the landscape level.

To improve habitat quality for wildlife, habitat managers prescribe various disturbances. Habitat management techniques alter the vegetation structure, composition, and quality, changing food and cover resources and availability. To investigate how habitat management and vegetation heterogeneity affect space use by wildlife species, I deployed 81 camera-traps and collected fine scale vegetation data across a variety of treatments (i.e., canopy reduction, prescribed fire, and herbicide application) in a managed loblolly pine forest. I created a new method for accounting for imperfect detection and error in camera count data. My method provided better inference about the effects of variables on animal use. Species responded differently to different functional groups of plants, but predicted use from generalized additive models showed higher use in the most intensively managed pine stands, indicating that management promotes animal use by improving habitat quality. Animals used every treatment, indicating the need for heterogeneity in resources when managing wildlife.

<p>  </p> <p>Semi-aquatic mammals, such as American beavers (<em>Castor canadensis</em>), muskrats (<em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>), North American river otters (<em>Lontra canadensis</em>), and American mink (<em>Neogale</em> <em>vison</em>), often play important roles in their ecosystem. Beavers and muskrats can manipulate plant community structure through the use of woody debris and forbs. As mesocarnivores, North American river otters and American mink can also drive community structure through the predation. Traditionally, these species are monitored using sign surveys (i.e., walking transects and visually identifying scat, tracks, and latrines). Camera trapping has also been used to survey semi-aquatic species occupancy to a lesser extent. However, due to their almost exclusive use of edge habitat, they may be ideal species to camera trap. Another more recently employed survey method is environmental DNA (eDNA), which involves the extraction of DNA from environmental samples (such as soil, water, air, and snow) to determine species occupancy. In this study, I evaluate environmental DNA and camera trapping as survey methods for detecting semi-aquatic mammals around northeastern Indiana. In the first chapter, I used eDNA sampling and camera trapping to monitor seven sites for three weeks during March – May 2021 in order to determine the presence of American mink. I found that the naïve occupancy for each site was 0.86. Although the detection probability of eDNA was lower than that of camera trapping (0.25 and 0.36, respectively), the occupancy models created suggest that there was no difference in detection probability between the two methods. I also compared the cost and time spent per sample and found that both were 20% lower for eDNA than camera trapping. The results of my study suggest eDNA may be a cost- and time-effective method for surveying for American mink occupancy. The objective of my second chapter was to determine the number of camera traps required to obtain reliable data for detecting semi-aquatic mammals. A minimum requirement for number of camera traps would be useful knowledge for wildlife managers in terms of budgeting and resource management and could also help to refine current camera trapping methodologies. I camera trapped four ponds for four weeks during June – July 2021, varying the number of camera traps (1 – 5) used at each pond each week. I collected a total of 66,543 photos and detected one semi-aquatic mammal throughout the study period (<em>Neogale vison</em>). Due to the lack of semi-aquatic mammals detected, I could not perform any analyses.</p>

This study explores the application of object detection models for detecting Arctic Foxes in camera trap images, a crucial step towards automating wildlife monitoring and enhancing conservation efforts. The study involved training models on You Only Look Once version 7(YOLOv7) architecture across different locations using k-fold cross-validation technique and evaluating their performance in terms of mean Average Precision (mAP), precision, and recall. The models were tested on both validation and unseen data to assess their accuracy and generalizability. The findings revealed that while certain models performed well on validation data, their effectiveness varied when applied to unseen data, with significant differences in performance across the datasets. While one of the datasets demonstrated the highest precision (88%), and recall (94%) on validation data, another one showed superior generalizability on unseen data (precision 76%, recall 95%). The models developed in this study can aid in the efficient identification of Arctic Foxes in diverse locations. However, the study also identifies limitations related to dataset diversity and environmental variability, suggesting the need for future research to focus on training models during different seasons and having different aged Arctic Foxes. Recommendations include expanding dataset diversity, exploring advanced object detection architectures to go one step further and detect Arctic Foxes with skin diseases, and testing the models in varied field conditions.

Mounting evidence suggests that large carnivores regulate the abundance and diversity of species at multiple trophic levels through cascading top-down effects. The fear large carnivores inspire in their prey may be a critical component of these top-down effects, buffering lower trophic levels from overconsumption by suppressing large herbivore and mesopredator foraging. However, the evidence that the fear of large carnivores cascades through food webs has been repeatedly challenged because it remains experimentally untested. My collaborators and I exploited a natural experiment – the presence or absence of mesopredator raccoons (Procyon lotor) on islands in the Gulf Islands of British Columbia, Canada – to examine the breadth of mesopredator impacts in a system from which all native large carnivores have been extirpated. By comparing prey abundance on islands with and without raccoons, we found significant negative effects of raccoon presence on terrestrial (songbirds and corvids), intertidal (crabs and fish) and shallow subtidal (red rock crabs Cancer productus) prey, demonstrating that, in the absence of native large carnivores, mesopredator impacts on islands can extend across ecosystem boundaries to affect both terrestrial and marine communities. To test whether fear of large carnivores can mitigate these community-level impacts of mesopredators, we experimentally manipulated fear in free-living raccoon populations using month-long playbacks of large carnivore vocalizations and monitored the effects on raccoon behaviour and the intertidal community. Fear of large carnivores reduced raccoon foraging to the benefit of the raccoon’s prey, which in turn affected a competitor and prey of the raccoon’s prey. By experimentally restoring the fear of large carnivores in our study system, we succeeded in reversing the impacts of raccoons, reinforcing the need to protect large carnivores given the conservation benefits the fear of them provides. Our experimental work demonstrated that fine-scale behavioural changes in prey in response to predation risk can have community-level effects relevant to biodiversity conservation. However, experimentally testing animal responses to predators and other sources of risk in free-living wildlife presents considerable logistical challenges. To address these challenges, my collaborators and I developed an Automated Behavioural Response system, which integrates playback experiments into camera trap studies, allowing researchers to collect experimental data from wildlife populations without requiring the presence of an observer. Here I describe tests of this system in Uganda, Canada and the USA, and discuss novel research opportunities in ecology and conservation biology made available by this new technology. / Graduate

A jaguatirica (Leopardus pardalis), assim como a maioria dos felídeos neotropicais, é um animal discreto e de difícil observação na natureza. Usando a técnica de armadilhas fotográficas, os objetivos deste estudo foram identificar possíveis variações na taxa de foto-captura e na distância máxima percorrida da jaguatirica entre períodos sazonais e estimar seu tamanho populacional, através do método de captura-recaptura, na porção norte do Parque Estadual Ilha do Cardoso. A área de vida mínima da jaguatirica e o número de foto-capturas de outras espécies de felídeos também foram documentados. Ao longo do ano, foram identificados oito indivíduos (um macho, cinco fêmeas e dois com sexo não identificado). Observou-se um aumento da taxa de foto-captura da jaguatirica e uma maior distância máxima percorrida na estação seca, sugerindo uma maior movimentação e aumento do tamanho da área de vida da jaguatirica neste período, embora estas variações entre os períodos sazonais tenham sido observadas mais para o macho do que para as fêmeas. Durante um período de 45 noites (13 sítios amostrais) foram foto capturados seis indivíduos, resultando numa estimativa de densidade (± erro padrão) de 0,21 (± 0,03) e 0,4 (± 0,05) indivíduos/km² (dependendo do método usado para calcular a área efetiva amostrada) em uma área de floresta na porção norte da ilha. Estes valores estão dentro da faixa de outras estimativas de densidade no continente. A área de vida mínima estimada para indivíduos foto-capturados em pelo menos três sítios de armadilhas fotográficas foi de 10 km² para o macho e variou de 0,2 a 3,5 km² para quatro fêmeas. Com um esforço total de 1475 armadilhas-noite, a jaguatirica teve o maior número de foto-capturas (91), seguido da onça-parda (22) e do gato-do-mato-pequeno (1). Este foi o primeiro trabalho a levantar informações do tamanho populacional da jaguatirica em uma área de Mata Atlântica insular, confirmando também a presença do gato-do-mato-pequeno nesta ilha. Implicações para o monitoramento e conservação da jaguatirica na Ilha do Cardoso foram discutidas. / The ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), as most neotropical felids, is elusive and difficult to observe in the wild. Using camera trapping, the objectives of this study were to identify variations in the photo capture rate and in the maximum distance moved of ocelots between seasons, and to estimate their abundance by capture-recapture method in the northern part of the Cardoso Island State Park. Minimum home range of the ocelot and the number of photographs of other felids were also recorded. I identified eight individuals (one male, five females and two individuals of sex not confirmed). It was observed an increase of the ocelot photo capture rate and the maximum distance moved in the dry season, suggesting an increase in the movement pattern and in home range use in the drier period, although these variations between seasons had been more observed for the male than the females. In a period of 45 nights (13 trap stations), six individuals were identified and the density estimated (± SE) was 0,21 (± 0,03) and 0,4 (± 0,05) ocelots/km² (depending of the method used to calculate the effective survey area). Those values are within the range of density estimates reported for the species in mainland areas. Minimum home ranges of individuals photographed in at least three trap stations was 10 km² for the male and ranged between 0,2 and 3,5 km² for four females. For a total of 1475 traps night, ocelots had the greatest number of photo capture (91), followed by the puma (22), and the little spotted cat (1). This was the first work to collect data of population size of ocelot in an island area of Coastal Atlantic Forest, also confirming the presence of little spotted cat on this island. Implications for the monitoring and conservation of the ocelots in the Cardoso Island were discussed.

A perda de habitats é, atualmente, a grande ameaça à diversidade de vertebrados terrestres (Crooks, 2002). Muito pouco resta da vegetação nativa no estado de São Paulo, uma vez que é o estado mais desenvolvido do Brasil. Embora sua porção litorânea ainda possua uma grande faixa de Floresta Atlântica, o que restou da vegetação de cerrado em seu interior são pequenos fragmentos, cercados de agricultura e silvicultura. Entretanto, este mosaico de vegetação ainda abriga espécies de médios e grandes mamíferos. Este estudo foi desenvolvido numa área com fragmentos de cerradão, cerrado sensu stricto, floresta semidecídua, além de cultivos de eucalipto e cana-de-açúcar, nos municípios de Santa Rita do Passa-Quatro e Luiz Antônio. Registraram-se 22 espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte por meio de armadilhamento fotográfico, canteiro de pegadas, identificação de fezes, vestígios e avistamentos diretos. Dessas 22 espécies, dez eram carnívoros os quais exploravam o ambiente independentemente de sua cobertura vegetal. Numa abordagem mais espacializada notou-se alguma diferença no uso dos habitats da área de estudo, inclusive do eucaliptal, que se mostrou um habitat importante na dinâmica das populações de carnívoros do local. Dessa forma concluiu-se que ambientes modificados pelas culturas humanas podem representar habitats efetivamente utilizados pela mastofauna de uma região antropizada. Diferentes métodos podem ser usados para monitorar populações ou comunidades faunísticas. O armadilhamento fotográfico e o registro em canteiro de pegadas são bastante utilizados para médios e grandes mamíferos. Os dois métodos possuem viéses na sua amostragem, além de custos e eficiências bem distintos, no entanto o uso conjunto desses dois métodos parece registrar de forma adeqüada a riqueza da mastofauna de uma determinada região. / Habitat\'s loss is the great jeopardy to the diversity of terrestrial vertebrates nowadays (Crooks, 2002). There\'s too little left from the native vegetation in São Paulo State, since it\'s the most developed state in Brazil. Although its coastal area still has a large tract of the Atlantic Forest, just small patches of Brazilian savanna (cerrado) vegetation are found in it, surrounded by agriculture and silviculture. However this vegetation mosaic still shelters both medium and large mammals\' species. This study was held in an area with remnant fragments of woodland savanna (cerradão), cerrado sensu stricto, semideciduous forest as well the cultivation of eucalyptus and sugar-cane in Santa Rita do Passa-Quatro e Luiz Antônio - Brazil. Twenty-two species of large and medium sized mammals were reported by the use of camera trapping, track plots recording, identification of dungs, vestiges and sights. Among these 22 species, ten were carnivore which exploit the environment regardless its vegetation coverage. During a more spatial approach, some difference in the use of the habitats was noted, concerning the study area, including the eucalyptus plantation, which turned out to be an important habitat on the dynamics of the carnivore population of the region. Thus one realizes that environments which were altered by human cultures can represent habitats actually used by mammals from an anthropogenic region. Different procedures can be applied to observe faunal populations or communities. The camera trapping and the track plot recording are often used for medium and large-sized mammals. Both methods present bias in their showing, besides these 2 methods seem to be suitable to the register the wealth of the mammals of a specific region.