Resumo: Objetivou-se com presente trabalho avaliar as características estruturais do dossel, o comportamento e o desempenho de novilhas de corte, suplementadas, em pastagem de capim-marandu submetidas à diferentes intensidade de pastejo, sob lotação contínua, assim como o efeito do histórico desses fatores sobre a fase de terminação. Para isso realizou-se quatro experimentos. No primeiro foram avaliadas três ofertas de forragem aliadas a dois tipos de suplementação, sal mineral e suplemento protéico energético. No segundo e terceiro experimentos os tratamentos foram três alturas do dossel aliados a três suplementos, sal mineral e dois suplementos protéicos energéticos. E no quarto foi estudado o efeito destes tratamentos sobre a terminação no confinamento ou no pasto. Observou que a altura do dossel influenciou todas as características estruturais do pasto. A suplementação não interferiu na estrutura do dossel, porém tendeu a reduzir o tempo de pastejo dos animais, principalmente nos períodos que antecederam o fornecimento do suplemento, contudo sem afetar o consumo de forragem. O uso de suplemento protéico energético aumentou o desempenho animal. Os fatores relacionado a fase de recria interferiram no período de terminação, porém não afetaram as características das carcaças. A terminação em confinamento aumentou a deposição de gordura nas carcaças e cortes cárneos. Concluiu-se que pastos de capim-marandu sob lotação contínua, sob pastejo por novilhas em recria, destinadas ao abate, podem ser manejados com alturas entre 15 a 35 cm, sendo a altura 25 cm a mais indicada. Suplementação protéica energética aumenta o desempenho animal e a produtividade do sistema / Abstract: The objective of this study was to evaluate the structural characteristics of the canopy, grazing behavior, and performance of beef heifers supplemented at pasture of Marandu grass submitted to different grazing intensity under continuous stocking rate, and the effect of these historical factors on the finish of these, in different systems. Four experiments were conducted. The first evaluated three forage allowances combined with two types of supplementation, mineral and protein/energy supplement. In the second and third experiments the treatments were three canopy heights combined with three supplements: mineral and two protein/energy supplements. And in the fourth, studied the effect of these treatments on the finish system, feedlot or in pasture. It was observed that the height of the canopy affected all the structural characteristics of the pasture. Supplementation did not affect the structure of the pasture canopy, but tended to reduce the grazing time of the animals, especially in periods leading up to the supplement supply, however forage intake was not altered. Concentrate supplementation increased animal performance. At all the evaluated situations the animals' weight gain was limited by energy intake. Factors related to the growing phase interfered in the finishing period, but did not affect the heifers' carcass characteristics. The finishing in feedlot increased fat deposition in the carcasses and in the meat cuts. It was concluded that Marandu grass pasture under continuous stocking, grazing by growing beef heifers intended for slaughter, can be managed in heights between 15 and 35 cm height, and 25 cm appears to be most appropriate. Protein/energy supplementation increases animal performance and system productivity / Orientador: Ricardo Andrade Reis / Coorientador: Telma Teresinha Berchielli / Banca: Sila Carneiro da Silva / Banca: Marco Antonio Alvares Balsalobre / Banca: Flavio Dutra de Resende / Banca: Alexandre Amstalden Moraes Sampaio / Doutor

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / To evaluate the gas exchange, the biomass flow, the biomass components before and after grazing and the tillering dynamics in massai grass under increasing nitrogen fertilization levels (control - without nitrogen fertilizer; 400; 800 and 1200 kgâha-1âyear-1) under rotational stocking with sheeps in a completely randomized design with measurements repeated in time, this research was carried out. The level of nitrogen for each treatment was divided into two parcels, the first half applied immediately after the animals leave the paddock and the second half applied in rest period half, according to each level assessed. The rest period was set at approximately 1.5 new leaf blades per tiller, as determined in pre-testing when the starting of the experiment, providing a period of 22, 18, 16 and 13 days for the nitrogen levels of 0.0 - control, 400, 800 and 1200 kgâha-1âyear-1, respectively. The technique of "mob-grazing" was used for the realization of grazing, using groups of animals for rapid defoliation (duration from 7 to 11 hours). With the animals grazing, the sward height was monitored with a ruler until they reach the recommended residual canopy height of approximately 15 cm, corresponding to the residual LAI of approximately 1.5. The variables: stomatal conductance, leaf photosynthesis rate, leaf carbon dioxide concentration, photosynthesis/transpiration ratio, chlorophyll relative index and nitrogen sufficiency index revealed positive linear response to the nitrogen fertilization. The nitrogen level 1200 kgâha- 1 âyear-1 presented increment of 92.3% on leaf photosynthesis rate in relation to the control. The leaf temperature and photosynthesis / conductance ratio were reduced with increasing of N levels. The leaf transpiration and total herbage biomass revealed quadratic response with maximum point with increasing of levels N. The leaf elongation rate was increased with the nitrogen levels and the grazing cycle 4 showed lower value in relation to the others. The culm elongation rate was increased with N levels, however it was not influenced by the grazing cycles. The leaf senescence rates before and after grazing were not influenced by nitrogen and were not altered by the grazing cycles. The leaf appearance rate and phylochron showed increasing and decreasing linear response, respectively, with N levels. The leaf average length revealed quadratic response with maximum point with N levels and grazing cycle 4 showed the lowest value for that variable. For each kg Nâha-1âyear-1 was observed increments of 0.161 and 0.1604 kgâha-1âday-1 for the herbage production and herbage accumulation rates, respectively. There was quadratic response for green forage biomass, green leaf biomass, green culm biomass, forage total density, canopy height and alive/senescent material ratio reaching maximum values (5172.9, 4146.3, 1033.9 kgâha-1âcycle-1; 179.1 kgâha-1âcm-1, 36.8 cm, 4.0, respectively) for nitrogen levels of 896; 933.9; 797; 879.2; 751.4 and 1161 kgâha-1âyear-1, respectively. For such variables was observed differences between the grazing cycles studied. The N levels provided increment to the variables: residual tiller population density, residual total herbage biomass, residual green herbage biomass, senescent herbage biomass, residual total herbage density and residual green herbage density. It was observed quadratic response for residual green stem herbage biomass and residual green stem density, reaching maximum values (1,014.4 kgâha-1âcycle-1 and 67.9 kgâha-1âcm-1, respectively) for the N levels of 881 and 872.1 kgâha-1âyear-1, respectively. It was observed quadratic response for the leaf/culm residual ratio and residual biomass quality index, reaching minimum values (0.75; 23%, respectively) for the nitrogen fertilization levels of 707.6 and 679.3 kgâha-1âyear-1, respectively. The grazing cycles influenced the most variables analysed after grazing, except for the residual green herbage biomass, the residual alive/senescent relation and the residual green herbage density. The tiller appearance rate, survival rate and mortality rate, tiller biomass and vegetative tillers/senescent tillers relation was increased with the nitrogen fertilization levels, with the first two rates and tiller biomass ranging between the evaluation periods. There was quadratic response for tillers flowering rate, vegetative tillers population density and reproductive tillers population density reaching maximum values (0.051 tillersâ100 tillers-1âday-1; 4818 and 35 tillersâm-2, respectively) for nitrogen fertilization levels of 613.5; 993.5 and 623.9 kgâha-1âyear-1, respectively. For the flowering rate and reproductive tillers population density was observed zifferences between the evaluation periods. The nitrogen fertilization promotes positive responses on gas exchange and morphophysiology of massai grass, recomending aplication of this nutrient up to 934 kgâha-1âyear-1. The grazing cycles promote little changes in the morphophysiological traits of massai grass, when a rigorous grazing management is adopted. / Objetivou-se avaliar as trocas gasosas, o fluxo de biomassa, a estrutura e os componentes da biomassa no prà e pÃs-pastejo e a dinÃmica de perfilhamento em capim-massai submetido a crescentes doses de nitrogÃnio (controle - sem nitrogÃnio; 400; 800 e 1200 kgâha-1âano-1) e sob lotaÃÃo rotativa com ovinos, num delineamento inteiramente casualizado com medidas repetidas no tempo. A dose de nitrogÃnio para cada tratamento foi dividida em duas parcelas, sendo a primeira metade aplicada logo apÃs a saÃda dos animais do piquete e a segunda metade aplicada na metade do perÃodo de descanso, de acordo com cada dose avaliada. O perÃodo de descanso adotado foi de aproximadamente 1,5 novas folhas por perfilho, conforme determinaÃÃo em prÃ-ensaio quando do inÃcio da instalaÃÃo do experimento, propiciando um intervalo de 22; 18; 16 e 13 dias para as doses de nitrogÃnio de 0,0 â controle; 400; 800 e 1200 kgâha-1âano-1, respectivamente. A tÃcnica de âmob-grazingâ foi usada para a realizaÃÃo dos pastejos, empregando-se grupos de animais para desfolhaÃÃes rÃpidas (duraÃÃo de 7 a 11 horas). à medida que os animais pastejavam, a altura do pasto foi monitorada com auxÃlio de uma rÃgua, atà que o dossel atingisse a altura residual preconizada de aproximadamente 15 cm, correspondendo ao IAF residual de saÃda dos animais do piquete de aproximadamente 1,5. As variÃveis: condutÃncia estomÃtica, taxa de fotossÃntese foliar, concentraÃÃo interna de CO2, relaÃÃo fotossÃntese/transpiraÃÃo, Ãndice relativo de clorofila e Ãndice de suficiÃncia de nitrogÃnio responderam de forma linear crescente ao incremento nas doses de nitrogÃnio. Verificou-se aumento de 92,3% na taxa de fotossÃntese para a dose de nitrogÃnio de 1200 kgâha-1âano-1 em relaÃÃo à ausÃncia de nitrogÃnio. A temperatura da folha e a relaÃÃo fotossÃntese/condutÃncia foram reduzidas com o aumento nas doses de nitrogÃnio. A adubaÃÃo nitrogenada proporcionou resposta quadrÃtica com ponto de mÃxima sobre a taxa de transpiraÃÃo foliar e produÃÃo de biomassa de forragem total. A taxa de alongamento foliar respondeu crescentemente Ãs doses de nitrogÃnio (N) e o ciclo de pastejo 4 revelou valor inferior em relaÃÃo aos trÃs primeiros. A taxa de alongamento das hastes respondeu de forma linear crescente com as doses de N, porÃm nÃo foi influenciada pelos ciclos de pastejo. As taxas de senescÃncia foliar anterior e posterior nÃo foram influenciadas pela adubaÃÃo nitrogenada, nem tampouco foram alteradas com os ciclos sucessivos de pastejo. A taxa de aparecimento foliar e o filocrono foram influenciados somente pela adubaÃÃo nitrogenada, revelando resposta linear crescente e decrescente, respectivamente, com as doses de N. Constatou-se resposta quadrÃtica com ponto de mÃximo para o comprimento mÃdio das folhas com a elevaÃÃo nas doses de N e o ciclo de pastejo 4 apresentou menor valor para a referida variÃvel. Para cada quilograma de Nâha-1âano-1, observou-se incrementos de 0,161 e 0,1604 kgâha-1âdia-1 na taxa de produÃÃo de forragem e de acÃmulo de forragem, respectivamente. Constatou-se resposta quadrÃtica para as variÃveis: biomassa de forragem verde, de lÃmina foliar verde, de colmo verde, densidade total de forragem, altura do dossel e relaÃÃo material vivo/material morto, alcanÃando valores mÃximos (5172,9; 4146,3; 1033,9 kgâha-1âciclo-1; 179,1 kgâha-1âcm-1; 36,8 cm; 4,0; respectivamente) nas doses de N de 896; 933,9; 797; 879,2; 751,4 e 1161 kgâha-1âano-1, respectivamente. Para tais variÃveis, verificou-se oscilaÃÃo entre os ciclos de pastejo estudados. ElevaÃÃo nas doses de nitrogÃnio proporcionou resposta crescente sobre as variÃveis: densidade populacional de perfilhos residual, biomassa de forragem total residual, de forragem verde residual, de forragem morta residual, densidade total de forragem residual e densidade de forragem verde residual. Verficou-se resposta quadrÃtica para a biomassa de colmo verde residual e densidade de colmo verde residual, alcanÃando valores mÃximos (1.014,4 kgâha-1âciclo-1 e 67,9 kgâha-1âcm-1, respectivamente) nas doses de nitrogÃnio de 881 e 872,1 kg âha-1âano-1, respectivamente. Observou-se resposta quadrÃtica para a relaÃÃo lÃmina foliar/colmo residual e Ãndice de qualidade da biomassa residual, alcanÃando valores mÃnimos (0,75; 23%, respectivamente) nas doses de nitrogÃnio de 707,6 e 679,3 kgâha-1âano-1, respectivamente. Os ciclos de pastejo exerceram alteraÃÃes sobre a maioria das variÃveis analisadas no pÃs-pastejo, exceto para a biomassa de forragem verde residual, relaÃÃo material vivo/material morto residual e densidade de forragem verde residual. As taxas de aparecimento, sobrevivÃncia e mortalidade de perfilhos, biomassa do perfilho e relaÃÃo perfilhos vegetativos/perfilhos mortos responderam crescentemente Ãs doses de nitrogÃnio, com as duas primeiras taxas e a biomassa do perfilho variando entre os perÃodos de avaliaÃÃo. Constatou-se resposta quadrÃtica para a taxa de florescimento de perfilhos, densidade populacional de perfilhos vegetativos e densidade populacional de perfilhos reprodutivos, alcanÃando valores mÃximos (0,051 perfâ100 perf-1âdia-1; 4818 e 35 perfâm-2, respectivamente) nas doses de nitrogÃnio de 613,5; 993,5 e 623,9 kgâha-1âano-1, respectivamente. Para a taxa de florescimento e densidade populacional de perfilhos reprodutivos, verificou-se oscilaÃÃo entre os perÃodos de avaliaÃÃo. A adubaÃÃo nitrogenada proporciona respostas positivas sobre as trocas gasosas e morfofisiologia do capim-massai, podendo-se utilizar uma dose de nitrogÃnio de atà 934 kgâha-1âano-1. Os ciclos de pastejo modificam as caracterÃsticas morfofisiolÃgicas da referida forrageira em pequena magnitude, quando se adota um manejo rigoroso do pastejo.

Fotossíntese é o processo biofísico pelo qual energia luminosa é transformada em energia química armazenada em compostos de carbono. A taxa fotossintética instantânea possui um forte padrão assintótico em resposta ao incremento da intensidade luminosa, porém quando integramos a fotossíntese em escalas espaciais e temporais maiores, observa-se um padrão linear de resposta entre radiação interceptada e produção. Esta abordagem permitiu o surgimento de modelos baseados nas taxas de conversão de energia radiante em biomassa seca, ou eficiência do uso da luz (&epsilon;). Valores publicados para o Eucalyptus estão na faixa de 0,5-2,5 g MJ-1, porém se faz necessário um entendimento mais profundo a respeito da sensibilidade destes valores às flutuações do clima e sua sazonalidade. Para isso, as taxas de crescimento, uso e eficiência do uso da luz foram monitoradas quinzenalmente durante 16 meses em parcelas de 18 clones de Eucalyptus, dos 1,3 aos 2,7 anos de idade. Foram testadas as hipóteses de que a produção de madeira aumentaria em função de incrementos no uso e/ou eficiência de uso da luz, assim como estes valores aumentariam respectivamente com incrementos no índice de área foliar e por uma alocação de carbono para o fuste, respectivamente. Os clones apresentaram uma grande amplitude de produtividade (9,9-22,7 Mg ha-1 ano-1) e arquiteturas de copa, capturando entre 65-95% da radiação incidente. Tais valores resultaram em uma eficiência do uso da luz média de 1,5 g MJ-1, variando entre 0,16-3,14 g MJ-1. Apesar de patamares distintos, os valores de eficiência de uso dos clones oscilaram de maneira similar, de modo que a radiação incidente foi a principal variável afetando a eficiência de uso da luz, estando &epsilon; positivamente relacionada a variáveis que expressam períodos de maior disponibilidade hídrica e negativamente relacionado a períodos de menor disponibilidade. Maiores valores de índice de área foliar efetivo (Le) acarretaram em maior interceptação de luz, porém as distintas arquiteturas de copa revelaram diferentes estratégias de captura de luz (0,3 < &kappa; < 0,6). Apesar de uma maior interceptação, não houve correlação significativa com a produtividade, no entanto observou-se uma forte correlação entre eficiência do uso da luz e crescimento em madeira, resultado de uma maior alocação para o fuste. Apesar de evidenciar a relação entre alocação e eficiência, existem outros mecanismos associados às alterações observadas em &epsilon; que apenas uma caracterização completa dos fluxos de carbono pode elucidar. / Photosynthesis is the biophysical process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy stored in carbon compounds. The instantaneous photosynthetic rate has a strong asymptotic pattern in response to increases in light intensity, however when we integrate photosynthesis in larger spatial and temporal scales, there is a linear pattern of response between intercepted radiation and production. This approach has allowed the appearance of models based on radiant energy conversion rates into dry biomass, or light use efficiency (&epsilon;). Published values for Eucalyptus range from 0.5 to 2.5 g MJ-1, but a deeper understanding of the sensitivity of these values to climate fluctuations and seasonality is necessary. For this reason, wood growth rates, light use and efficiency were monitored every two weeks for 16 months at 18 Eucalyptus clones plots, from 1.3 to 2.7 years of age. Our hypothesis was that wood production would be positively related to light use and efficiency, as well these values would increase respectively with increases in leaf area index and carbon allocation to the stem. Clones showed a wide range of productivity (9.9 to 22.7 Mg ha-1 yr-1) and canopy architectures, capturing between 65-95% of incident radiation. Such values resulted in an average light use efficiency of 1.8 g MJ-1, ranging from 0.16 to 3.14 g MJ-1. Although different levels, light use efficiency values for the clones fluctuated similarly. Incident radiation was the main variable affecting the efficiency of dry matter conversion, and &epsilon; values were positively related variables expressing periods of greater water availability and negatively related to periods of lower availability. Larger effective leaf area index (Le) values resulted in higher light interception, but the different canopy architectures revealed different light capture strategies (0.3 < &kappa; < 0.6). Despite a higher interception, there was no significant correlation with productivity; however there was a strong correlation between light use efficiency and wood growth, as a result of increased allocation to the stem. While evidencing the relationship between allocation and efficiency, there are other mechanisms associated with changes in &epsilon; observed that only one full characterization of the carbon fluxes can elucidate.

The effects of crop load and berry exposure on the composition of Marlborough Sauvignon blanc grapes and wine from the Brancott vineyard, Blenheim, were explored. Commercially grown, 2-cane and 4-cane Sauvignon blanc vines were used with a row orientation of north-south. Two exposure treatments were imposed in the following manner: complete leaf removal was undertaken in the fruit zone and 50% shade cloth was erected to give a uniform shading treatment to half the trial vines. Weekly thirty-berry and whole bunch samples were taken from each of the 32 plots with the exception of the veraison period when two samples per week were taken. Vine vigour was assessed using pruning and leaf area per vine data. Harvest occurred on different dates for 2-cane and 4-cane pruned vines so that fruit attained from both treatments had similar °Brix. Fruit was processed at the Lincoln University winery. Must analysis and wine analysis were undertaken. As expected, 4-cane vines had almost double the yield of 2-cane vines. Higher crop load significantly reduced leaf area per shoot and shoot thickness. Lower leaf area to fruit ratio for 4-cane berries resulted in delayed onset of veraison and slowed the rate of sugar accumulation. Crop load, which limited leaf area to fruit ratio, appeared to be the dominant factor in determining timing of grape physiological ripeness as expressed by °Brix over other factors such as fruit exposure. Malic acid, tartaric acid, IPMP (iso-propylmethoxypyrazine) and IBMP (iso-butyl-methoxypyrazine) were lower at equivalent °Brix in 4-cane compared with 2-cane berries. Significantly higher concentrations of quercetin were found in exposed compared to shaded berries. Must analysis showed a significant influence of crop load on berry titratable acidity and pH, reflecting berry ripening results. Exposure significantly increased the concentrations of nitrogenous compounds in 4-cane must yet showed no influence on 2-cane must. After wine processing lower malic acid concentrations in wines made from 100% exposed fruit became evident in lower wine titratable acidity but showed no influence on wine pH. Bentonite addition to wines had a small but statistically significant influence on wine by reducing pH, titratable acidity and alcohol. Bound sulphur concentrations were significantly higher in 4-cane versus 2-cane wines. At harvest, methoxypyrazine levels in grapes and wines were very low; IBMP concentrations where significantly lower than those normally found in Sauvignon blanc wines from Marlborough. This was attributed to the absence of basal leaves from the shoots of ripening berries. The results suggest that leaf area to fruit ratio is a powerful determinant of grape and wine quality.

LOPES, Marcos Neves. Trocas gasosas e morfofisiologia em capim-massai sob pastejo e adubado com nitrogênio. 2012. 118 f . : Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Ceará, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Zootecnia, Fortaleza-CE, 2012 / Submitted by Nádja Goes (nmoraissoares@gmail.com) on 2016-08-05T13:24:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2012_dis_mnelopes.pdf: 1790717 bytes, checksum: e9b44956a50e16fb297f5ebb123ee326 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Nádja Goes (nmoraissoares@gmail.com) on 2016-08-05T13:24:56Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2012_dis_mnelopes.pdf: 1790717 bytes, checksum: e9b44956a50e16fb297f5ebb123ee326 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-05T13:24:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2012_dis_mnelopes.pdf: 1790717 bytes, checksum: e9b44956a50e16fb297f5ebb123ee326 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Objetivou-se avaliar as trocas gasosas, o fluxo de biomassa, a estrutura e os componentes da biomassa no pré e pós-pastejo e a dinâmica de perfilhamento em capim-massai submetido a crescentes doses de nitrogênio (controle - sem nitrogênio; 400; 800 e 1200 kg•ha-1•ano-1) e sob lotação rotativa com ovinos, num delineamento inteiramente casualizado com medidas repetidas no tempo. A dose de nitrogênio para cada tratamento foi dividida em duas parcelas, sendo a primeira metade aplicada logo após a saída dos animais do piquete e a segunda metade aplicada na metade do período de descanso, de acordo com cada dose avaliada. O período de descanso adotado foi de aproximadamente 1,5 novas folhas por perfilho, conforme determinação em pré-ensaio quando do início da instalação do experimento, propiciando um intervalo de 22; 18; 16 e 13 dias para as doses de nitrogênio de 0,0 – controle; 400; 800 e 1200 kg•ha-1•ano-1, respectivamente. A técnica de “mob-grazing” foi usada para a realização dos pastejos, empregando-se grupos de animais para desfolhações rápidas (duração de 7 a 11 horas). À medida que os animais pastejavam, a altura do pasto foi monitorada com auxílio de uma régua, até que o dossel atingisse a altura residual preconizada de aproximadamente 15 cm, correspondendo ao IAF residual de saída dos animais do piquete de aproximadamente 1,5. As variáveis: condutância estomática, taxa de fotossíntese foliar, concentração interna de CO2, relação fotossíntese/transpiração, índice relativo de clorofila e índice de suficiência de nitrogênio responderam de forma linear crescente ao incremento nas doses de nitrogênio. Verificou-se aumento de 92,3% na taxa de fotossíntese para a dose de nitrogênio de 1200 kg•ha-1•ano-1 em relação à ausência de nitrogênio. A temperatura da folha e a relação fotossíntese/condutância foram reduzidas com o aumento nas doses de nitrogênio. A adubação nitrogenada proporcionou resposta quadrática com ponto de máxima sobre a taxa de transpiração foliar e produção de biomassa de forragem total. A taxa de alongamento foliar respondeu crescentemente às doses de nitrogênio (N) e o ciclo de pastejo 4 revelou valor inferior em relação aos três primeiros. A taxa de alongamento das hastes respondeu de forma linear crescente com as doses de N, porém não foi influenciada pelos ciclos de pastejo. As taxas de senescência foliar anterior e posterior não foram influenciadas pela adubação nitrogenada, nem tampouco foram alteradas com os ciclos sucessivos de pastejo. A taxa de aparecimento foliar e o filocrono foram influenciados somente pela adubação nitrogenada, revelando resposta linear crescente e decrescente, respectivamente, com as doses de N. Constatou-se resposta quadrática com ponto de máximo para o comprimento médio das folhas com a elevação nas doses de N e o ciclo de pastejo 4 apresentou menor valor para a referida variável. Para cada quilograma de N•ha-1•ano-1, observou-se incrementos de 0,161 e 0,1604 kg•ha-1•dia-1 na taxa de produção de forragem e de acúmulo de forragem, respectivamente. Constatou-se resposta quadrática para as variáveis: biomassa de forragem verde, de lâmina foliar verde, de colmo verde, densidade total de forragem, altura do dossel e relação material vivo/material morto, alcançando valores máximos (5172,9; 4146,3; 1033,9 kg•ha-1•ciclo-1; 179,1 kg•ha-1•cm-1; 36,8 cm; 4,0; respectivamente) nas doses de N de 896; 933,9; 797; 879,2; 751,4 e 1161 kg•ha-1•ano-1, respectivamente. Para tais variáveis, verificou-se oscilação entre os ciclos de pastejo estudados. Elevação nas doses de nitrogênio proporcionou resposta crescente sobre as variáveis: densidade populacional de perfilhos residual, biomassa de forragem total residual, de forragem verde residual, de forragem morta residual, densidade total de forragem residual e densidade de forragem verde residual. Verficou-se resposta quadrática para a biomassa de colmo verde residual e densidade de colmo verde residual, alcançando valores máximos (1.014,4 kg•ha-1•ciclo-1 e 67,9 kg•ha-1•cm-1, respectivamente) nas doses de nitrogênio de 881 e 872,1 kg •ha-1•ano-1, respectivamente. Observou-se resposta quadrática para a relação lâmina foliar/colmo residual e índice de qualidade da biomassa residual, alcançando valores mínimos (0,75; 23%, respectivamente) nas doses de nitrogênio de 707,6 e 679,3 kg•ha-1•ano-1, respectivamente. Os ciclos de pastejo exerceram alterações sobre a maioria das variáveis analisadas no pós-pastejo, exceto para a biomassa de forragem verde residual, relação material vivo/material morto residual e densidade de forragem verde residual. As taxas de aparecimento, sobrevivência e mortalidade de perfilhos, biomassa do perfilho e relação perfilhos vegetativos/perfilhos mortos responderam crescentemente às doses de nitrogênio, com as duas primeiras taxas e a biomassa do perfilho variando entre os períodos de avaliação. Constatou-se resposta quadrática para a taxa de florescimento de perfilhos, densidade populacional de perfilhos vegetativos e densidade populacional de perfilhos reprodutivos, alcançando valores máximos (0,051 perf•100 perf-1•dia-1; 4818 e 35 perf•m-2, respectivamente) nas doses de nitrogênio de 613,5; 993,5 e 623,9 kg•ha-1•ano-1, respectivamente. Para a taxa de florescimento e densidade populacional de perfilhos reprodutivos, verificou-se oscilação entre os períodos de avaliação. A adubação nitrogenada proporciona respostas positivas sobre as trocas gasosas e morfofisiologia do capim-massai, podendo-se utilizar uma dose de nitrogênio de até 934 kg•ha-1•ano-1. Os ciclos de pastejo modificam as características morfofisiológicas da referida forrageira em pequena magnitude, quando se adota um manejo rigoroso do pastejo. / To evaluate the gas exchange, the biomass flow, the biomass components before and after grazing and the tillering dynamics in massai grass under increasing nitrogen fertilization levels (control - without nitrogen fertilizer; 400; 800 and 1200 kg•ha-1•year-1) under rotational stocking with sheeps in a completely randomized design with measurements repeated in time, this research was carried out. The level of nitrogen for each treatment was divided into two parcels, the first half applied immediately after the animals leave the paddock and the second half applied in rest period half, according to each level assessed. The rest period was set at approximately 1.5 new leaf blades per tiller, as determined in pre-testing when the starting of the experiment, providing a period of 22, 18, 16 and 13 days for the nitrogen levels of 0.0 - control, 400, 800 and 1200 kg•ha-1•year-1, respectively. The technique of "mob-grazing" was used for the realization of grazing, using groups of animals for rapid defoliation (duration from 7 to 11 hours). With the animals grazing, the sward height was monitored with a ruler until they reach the recommended residual canopy height of approximately 15 cm, corresponding to the residual LAI of approximately 1.5. The variables: stomatal conductance, leaf photosynthesis rate, leaf carbon dioxide concentration, photosynthesis/transpiration ratio, chlorophyll relative index and nitrogen sufficiency index revealed positive linear response to the nitrogen fertilization. The nitrogen level 1200 kg•ha- 1 •year-1 presented increment of 92.3% on leaf photosynthesis rate in relation to the control. The leaf temperature and photosynthesis / conductance ratio were reduced with increasing of N levels. The leaf transpiration and total herbage biomass revealed quadratic response with maximum point with increasing of levels N. The leaf elongation rate was increased with the nitrogen levels and the grazing cycle 4 showed lower value in relation to the others. The culm elongation rate was increased with N levels, however it was not influenced by the grazing cycles. The leaf senescence rates before and after grazing were not influenced by nitrogen and were not altered by the grazing cycles. The leaf appearance rate and phylochron showed increasing and decreasing linear response, respectively, with N levels. The leaf average length revealed quadratic response with maximum point with N levels and grazing cycle 4 showed the lowest value for that variable. For each kg N•ha-1•year-1 was observed increments of 0.161 and 0.1604 kg•ha-1•day-1 for the herbage production and herbage accumulation rates, respectively. There was quadratic response for green forage biomass, green leaf biomass, green culm biomass, forage total density, canopy height and alive/senescent material ratio reaching maximum values (5172.9, 4146.3, 1033.9 kg•ha-1•cycle-1; 179.1 kg•ha-1•cm-1, 36.8 cm, 4.0, respectively) for nitrogen levels of 896; 933.9; 797; 879.2; 751.4 and 1161 kg•ha-1•year-1, respectively. For such variables was observed differences between the grazing cycles studied. The N levels provided increment to the variables: residual tiller population density, residual total herbage biomass, residual green herbage biomass, senescent herbage biomass, residual total herbage density and residual green herbage density. It was observed quadratic response for residual green stem herbage biomass and residual green stem density, reaching maximum values (1,014.4 kg•ha-1•cycle-1 and 67.9 kg•ha-1•cm-1, respectively) for the N levels of 881 and 872.1 kg•ha-1•year-1, respectively. It was observed quadratic response for the leaf/culm residual ratio and residual biomass quality index, reaching minimum values (0.75; 23%, respectively) for the nitrogen fertilization levels of 707.6 and 679.3 kg•ha-1•year-1, respectively. The grazing cycles influenced the most variables analysed after grazing, except for the residual green herbage biomass, the residual alive/senescent relation and the residual green herbage density. The tiller appearance rate, survival rate and mortality rate, tiller biomass and vegetative tillers/senescent tillers relation was increased with the nitrogen fertilization levels, with the first two rates and tiller biomass ranging between the evaluation periods. There was quadratic response for tillers flowering rate, vegetative tillers population density and reproductive tillers population density reaching maximum values (0.051 tillers•100 tillers-1•day-1; 4818 and 35 tillers•m-2, respectively) for nitrogen fertilization levels of 613.5; 993.5 and 623.9 kg•ha-1•year-1, respectively. For the flowering rate and reproductive tillers population density was observed zifferences between the evaluation periods. The nitrogen fertilization promotes positive responses on gas exchange and morphophysiology of massai grass, recomending aplication of this nutrient up to 934 kg•ha-1•year-1. The grazing cycles promote little changes in the morphophysiological traits of massai grass, when a rigorous grazing management is adopted.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Avaliou-se as trocas gasosas, o fluxo de biomassa e as caracterÃsticas estruturais do capim-aruana pastejado sob lotaÃÃo rotativa por ovinos Morada Nova submetidos a quatro nÃveis de suplementaÃÃo concentrada (0,0; 0,6; 1,2 e 1,8% do PC), com perÃodo de ocupaÃÃo de quatro dias e descanso quando da interceptaÃÃo de 90% da radiaÃÃo fotossinteticamente ativa (IRFA), num delineamento inteiramente casualizado, num arranjo em parcelas subdivididas, sendo os nÃveis de suplementaÃÃo as parcelas e os ciclos de pastejo as subparcelas. A condiÃÃo de pÃs-pastejo consistiu em um Ãndice de Ãrea foliar de 1,0. Constatou-se efeito linear crescente para a taxa de alongamento das hastes e taxa de aparecimento foliar em funÃÃo dos nÃveis de suplementaÃÃo. As taxas de produÃÃo e acÃmulo de forragem foram incrementadas pelos nÃveis de suplementaÃÃo. As variÃveis das trocas gasosas das folhas recÃm-expandidas: transpiraÃÃo, condutÃncia estomÃtica, taxa de fotossÃntese foliar, mostraram efeito somente de ciclo de pastejo. NÃo houve nenhum efeito significativo sobre as variÃveis das trocas gasosas das folhas emergentes. Os componentes da biomassa pÃs-pastejo registraram efeito significativo da interaÃÃo nÃveis de suplementaÃÃo e ciclos de pastejo para biomassa de forragem verde residual (BFVr), lÃmina foliar verde residual (BLVr), colmo verde residual (BCVr) e relaÃÃo folha:colmo (F_Cr) residual, estas variÃveis, com exceÃÃo da F_Cr apresentaram efeito quadrÃtico nos ciclos dois e trÃs, confirmando o efeito substitutivo, a partir do nÃvel de suplementaÃÃo de 0,86%, com o mÃnimo estimado de 257,53 Kgâha-Ââano-1, para a BLVr. A relaÃÃo material vivo_ material morto residual apresentou efeito linear crescente em funÃÃo dos nÃveis de suplementaÃÃo. A altura do pasto e a densidade populacional de perfilhos residual foram afetadas somente pelos ciclos de pastejo. A biomassa de forragem verde (BFV) e de lÃmina foliar verde (BLV) apresentaram efeito da interaÃÃo nÃveis de suplementaÃÃo e ciclos de pastejo. A BLV registrou efeito quadrÃtico para os ciclos dois e trÃs, onde os maiores valores foram de 1489,47, no nÃvel de 0,62, do segundo ciclo e de 1554,95 Kgâha-Ââano-1no ciclo trÃs com nÃvel de suplementaÃÃo de 0,14 %. As trocas gasosas nÃo sÃo afetadas pelos nÃveis de suplementaÃÃo. As caracterÃsticas morfogÃnicas do pasto de capim-aruana sÃo afetadas linearmente pelos nÃveis crescentes de suplementaÃÃo. Os componentes estruturais do pasto de capim-aruana sÃo afetados pelos nÃveis crescentes de suplementaÃÃo concentrada, registrando efeito substitutivo do suplemento. / This study evaluated the gas exchange, the biomass flow and the structural characteristics of Panicum maximum cv. Aruana grazed by Morada Nova sheep under rotational stocking and supplied with four concentrate supplementation levels (0.0; 0.6; 1.2 and 1.8% body weight), using four day-grazing periods and rest when the interception of 90% of the photosynthetic active radiation (PAR). The experiment was a completely randomized split-plot design with supplementation levels as plots and grazing cycles as subplots. The post-grazing condition consisted of a leaf area index of 1.0. We observed an increasing linear effect for stem elongation rate and leaf appearance rate according to the supplementation levels. The production and accumulation rates of forage also increased according to the supplementation levels. The different grazing cycles affected the variables of gas exchange of the recently expanded leaves, namely transpiration, stomatal conductance, leaf photosynthesis rate. In turn, no significant effect was detected for the gas exchange variables of emergent leaves. Biomass components during the post-grazing period showed a significant effect of the interaction between supplementation levels and grazing cycles for residual green forage biomass (BFVr), residual green leaf biomass (BLVr), residual green stem biomass (BCVr) and residual leaf:stem ratio (F_Cr). All these variables, with the exception of F_Cr, presented a quadratic effect in the cycles two and three, confirming the substitutive effect from the supplementation level of 0.86%, with the minimum estimated at 257.53 Kgâha-Ââyear-1, for BLVr. The ratio between living and senescent material showed an increasing linear response as a function of the supplementation levels. The pasture height and the residual tiller population density were affected only by grazing cycles. Green forage biomass (BFV) and green leaf biomass (BLV) presented a quadratic effect of the supplementation levels and grazing cycles. BLV showed a quadratic effect for the cycles two and three, where the higher values were 1489.47, at the level of 0.62, in the second cycle, and 1554.95 Kgâha-Ââyear-1 in the third cycle with a supplementation level of 0.14%. Gas exchange was not influenced by the supplementation levels. Morphogenetic traits of the aruana grass pasture are linearly affected by increasing levels of supplementation. The structural components of the aruana grass pasture are influenced by the increasing levels of concentrate supplementation, with a substitutive effect of the supplement.

Tropical forests store more than half of the world’s forest carbon and are particularly threatened by deforestation and degradation processes, which together represent the second largest source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Consequently, tropical forests are the focus of international climate policies (i.e. Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, REDD) aiming at reducing forest-related CO2 emissions. The REDD initiative lies on our ability to map forest carbon stocks (i.e. spatial dynamics) and to detect deforestation and degradations (i.e. temporal dynamics) at large spatial scales (e.g. national, forested basin), with accuracy and precision. Remote-sensing is as a key tool for this purpose, but numerous sources of error along the carbon mapping chain makes meeting REDD criteria an outstanding challenge. In the present thesis, we assessed carbon (quantified through aboveground biomass, AGB) estimation error at the tree- and plot-level using a widely used pantropical AGB model, and at the landscape-level using a remote sensing method based on canopy texture features from very high resolution (VHR) optical data. Our objective was to better understand and reduce AGB estimation error at each level using information on large canopy tree structure, distribution and spatial organization. Although large trees disproportionally contributed to forest carbon stock, they are under-represented in destructive datasets and subject to an under-estimation bias with the pantropical AGB model. We destructively sampled 77 very large tropical trees and assembled a large (pantropical) dataset to study how variation in tree form (through crown sizes and crown mass ratio) contributed to this error pattern. We showed that the source of bias in the pantropical model was a systematic increase in the proportion of tree mass allocated to the crown in canopy trees. An alternative AGB model accounting for this phenomenon was proposed. We also propagated the AGB model bias at the plot-level and showed that the interaction between forest structure and model bias, although often overlooked, might in fact be substantial. We further analyzed the structural properties of crown branching networks in light of the assumptions and predictions of the Metabolic Theory of Ecology, which supports the power-form of the pantropical AGB model. Important deviations were observed, notably from Leonardo’s rule (i.e. the principle of area conservation), which, all else being equal, could support the higher proportion of mass in large tree crowns. A second part of the thesis dealt with the extrapolation of field-plot AGB via canopy texture features of VHR optical data. A major barrier for the development of a broad-scale forest carbon monitoring method based on canopy texture is that relationships between canopy texture and stand structure parameters (including AGB) vary among forest types and regions of the world. We investigated this discrepancy using a simulation approach: virtual canopy scenes were generated for 279 1-ha plots distributed on contrasted forest types across the tropics. We showed that complementing FOTO texture with additional descriptors of forest structure, notably on canopy openness (from a lacunarity analysis) and tree slenderness (from a bioclimatic proxy) allows developing a stable inversion frame for forest AGB at large scale. Although the approach we proposed requires further empirical validation, a first case study on a forests mosaic in the Congo basin gave promising results. Overall, this work increased our understanding of mechanisms behind AGB estimation errors at the tree-, plot- and landscape-level. It stresses the need to better account for variation patterns in tree structure (e.g. ontogenetic pattern of carbon allocation) and forest structural organization (across forest types, under different environmental conditions) to improve general AGB models, and in fine our ability to accurately map forest AGB at large scale.

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