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Pyrethroids are the only class of insecticides approved by the World Health Organization (WHO) for use in insecticide treated nets (ITNs), the first line of malaria vector control. Widespread resistance development to pyrethroids undermines current control efforts, and hence an urgent need for alternative chemistries. I report the evaluation of pharmacological differences between insect and vertebrate acetylcholinesterase (AChE) as well as selectivity and toxicity testing of new carbamate insecticides on Anopheles gambiae, the African malaria mosquito. AChE gorge pharmacology data revealed differences between insect and vertebrate AChE that can be exploited in the design of a bivalent insecticide. Toxicokinetic analysis showed that metabolic detoxication and cuticular penetration affect toxicity of carbamates in a manner dependent on the chemical structure. Structure activity relationships of side-chain branched N-methylcarbamates emphasized the importance of structural complementarity of ligands to the AChE catalytic active site and the substrate, acetylcholine. Monovalent pyrazoles and acetophenone oxime carbamates were toxic to both susceptible and carbamate-resistant mosquitoes carrying a G119S mutation within the catalytic site. A bivalent phthalimide-pyrazole carbamate and sulfenylated phenyl N-methyl carbamates were highly toxic when topically applied onto insect but less toxic by treated filter paper assays. In vitro evaluation of a molecular mosquito-selectivity model using AChE peripheral site ligands confirmed that selectivity of PRC 472 was due to presence of I70 in mosquito, which is Y70 in human AChE. The findings presented here are important steps in the on-going search of a mosquito-selective and resistance mitigating carbamate insecticide for control of malaria mosquitoes. / Ph. D.

Les réactions multicomposants radicalaires sont d’une grande efficacité synthétique et s’avèrent en phase avec les principes de la chimie dite "verte". Ce manuscrit s’articule autour de trois axes : l’étude de la réaction de carbo-alcénylation radicalaire d’oléfines azotées riches en électrons, la valorisation des structures obtenues en se dirigeant vers la synthèse de molécules cycliques ou polycycliques complexes, et pour finir la mise au point de nouveaux médiateurs radicalaires sans étain. Dans un premiers temps, sur la base de travaux antérieurs de notre laboratoire, la réaction de carbo-alcénylation radicalaire a été étendue avec succès à l’utilisation d’énamides et d’ène-carbamates. Cette étude a permis de montrer la forte réactivité de ces oléfines vis-à-vis de radicaux électrophiles ainsi que l’importante force motrice que constitue la formation du radical amidoyle intermédiaire.Parmi tous les énamides et ène-carbamates testés, seules les structures cycliques ont permis d’obtenir une excellente diastéréosélectivité en faveur des produits trans. Dans un second temps, une valorisation des structures obtenues lors de la réaction de carbo-alcénylation a été réalisée par la mise au point de processus de cyclisations radicalaires et ioniques. Des cyclisations par activation via des énamines ont permis d’obtenir diastéréosélectivement des squelettes aza-décalones, présents notamment dans les alcaloïdes de la famille des lycopodiums. Un processus de double cyclisations de type 5-exo-trig/6-exo-trig, totalement diastéréosélectif, a également été établi donnant accès à des composés tri- et tétracycliques diversement substitués présents dans d’autres types d’alcaloïdes.Enfin, le développement de nouveaux médiateurs radicalaires silylés non réducteurs, comme substituts aux diétains, a été réalisé. L’intérêt s’est porté sur divers disilanes, thiosilanes, borosilanes et borothiosilanes, précurseurs de radicaux silyles permettant de promouvoir la propagation de chaînes radicalaires. Ces médiateurs ont été testés dans des réactions de vinylation directes de bromures d’alkyle ou dans des processus de carbo-alcénylation à trois composants. Dans le cas des thiosilanes et borosilanes des résultats encourageants et prometteurs ont été obtenus. / Multicomponent radical reactions have high synthetic efficiency and are in line with "green"chemistry concepts. This manuscript focuses on three topics: the study of the radical carboalkenylation reactions on electrons-rich olefins, the further elaboration of the structures directed towards the synthesis of complex cyclic or polycyclic molecules, and finally the development of newtin-free radical mediators.In the first part, based on previous work from our laboratory, the radical carbo-alkenylation reaction was successfully extended to enamides and ene-carbamates. This study demonstrated the high reactivity of these olefins towards electrophilic radical species and also the major driving force which constitutes the formation of the intermediate amidoyl radical. Amongst all enamides and enecarbamates tested, only the cyclic compounds led to a good diastereocontrol in the favor of transproducts.In a second part, the structures obtained in the carbo-alkenylation reaction were further elaborated through the development of radical and ionic cyclization processes. Activation via enamines allowed the diastereoselective formation of aza-decalin backbones, presents in the lycopodium alkaloid family. A totally diastereoselective double 5-exo-trig/6-exo-trig cyclization process was also achieved,generating various substituted tri- and tetracyclic compounds present in other classes of alkaloids. Finally, the development of new non-reductive free-radical silylated mediators as ditin surrogates was achieved. The research focused on various disilanes, thiosilanes, borosilanes and borothiosilanes,precursors of silyl radicals sustaining the radical chain. These mediators were tested in directvinylation reactions of alkyl bromides or in three components carbo-alkenylation processes. Forthiosilanes and borosilanes encouraging and promising results were obtained.

<p>This study firstly reports the development, characterisation, and application of thick-film acetylcholinesterase (AChE) biosensors based on a gold electrode modified with a mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) self-assembled monolayer and either poly(omethoxyaniline) (POMA) or poly(2,5-dimethoxyaniline) (PDMA) in the presence of polystyrene(4-sulphonic acid) (PSSA). The Au/MBT/POMA-PSSA/AChE and Au/MBT/PDMA-PSSA/AChE biosensors were then applied to successfully detect standard organophosphorous and carbamate pesticides in a 0.1 M phosphate buffer, 0.1 M KCl (pH 7.2) solution. Secondly, it reports the construction of the Au/MBT/PANI/AChE/PVAc thick-film biosensor for the determination of certain organophosphate and carbamate pesticide solutions in selected aqueous organic solvent solutions.</p>

The focus of this thesis was to investigate developmental neurotoxic effects of different persistent and non-persistent environmental pollutants, alone or in binary mixtures, when exposure occurs during a critical period of brain development, in mice. The compounds investigated included a perfluorinated compound, perfluorohexane sulphonate (PFHxS), and four different pesticides, endosulfan, cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos and carbaryl. Both persistent and non-persistent pollutants are detected in the environment and in humans, which shows that exposure to these compounds is occurring in real life. Humans can therefore be exposed to various pollutants during their whole lifetime, starting from the gestational period to adulthood. Furthermore, exposure to environmental pollutants is rarely exclusive to a single compound, but rather occurs through combinations of various pollutants present in the environment. Exposure to environmental pollutants during human brain development have been suggested to be a possible cause for neuropsychiatric disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Previous studies have shown that chemicals can induce irreversible disorders in brain function when exposure to these chemicals occurs during a critical defined period of the brain development known as the brain growth spurt (BGS). The BGS is characterized by a rapid growth and development of the immature brain. In humans, and mice, this period also overlaps the lactation period indicating that newborns and toddlers can be exposed via mothers’ milk as well. This thesis has shown that a single oral exposure to PFHxS, endosulfan, cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos or carbaryl can induce developmental neurotoxic effects in mice, when exposure occurs during a critical period of brain development. These effects are manifested as persistent altered adult spontaneous behavior in a novel home environment, modified habituation, altered susceptibility of the cholinergic system and changed levels of neuroproteins in the mouse brain. Furthermore, a single neonatal co-exposure to a binary mixture of carbaryl/chlorpyrifos or PFHxS/endosulfan can interact and exacerbate the adult behavioral effects. These effects were seen at dosages were the single compound did not elicit a response or induced a much weaker behavioral effect. This indicates that risk assessments conducted on single compounds might underestimate interaction effects of mixtures when co-exposed.

<p>This study firstly reports the development, characterisation, and application of thick-film acetylcholinesterase (AChE) biosensors based on a gold electrode modified with a mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) self-assembled monolayer and either poly(omethoxyaniline) (POMA) or poly(2,5-dimethoxyaniline) (PDMA) in the presence of polystyrene(4-sulphonic acid) (PSSA). The Au/MBT/POMA-PSSA/AChE and Au/MBT/PDMA-PSSA/AChE biosensors were then applied to successfully detect standard organophosphorous and carbamate pesticides in a 0.1 M phosphate buffer, 0.1 M KCl (pH 7.2) solution. Secondly, it reports the construction of the Au/MBT/PANI/AChE/PVAc thick-film biosensor for the determination of certain organophosphate and carbamate pesticide solutions in selected aqueous organic solvent solutions.</p>

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This study firstly reports the development, characterisation, and application of thick-film acetylcholinesterase (AChE) biosensors based on a gold electrode modified with a mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) self-assembled monolayer and either poly(omethoxyaniline) (POMA) or poly(2,5-dimethoxyaniline) (PDMA) in the presence of polystyrene(4-sulphonic acid) (PSSA). The Au/MBT/POMA-PSSA/AChE and Au/MBT/PDMA-PSSA/AChE biosensors were then applied to successfully detect standard organophosphorous and carbamate pesticides in a 0.1 M phosphate buffer, 0.1 M KCl (pH 7.2) solution. Secondly, it reports the construction of the Au/MBT/PANI/AChE/PVAc thick-film biosensor for the determination of certain organophosphate and carbamate pesticide solutions in selected aqueous organic solvent solutions. / South Africa

Malaria is one of the deadliest diseases known to mankind. In 2010, 219 million cases were reported, and 666,000 deaths were attributed to this disease. In the past, pyrethroid-treated mosquito nets have shown efficacy in reducing malaria transmission in many malaria endemic regions. However, an upsurge in the mosquito population that is resistant to pyrethroids threatens to compromise the efficacy of pyrethroid-treated bed nets. In an effort to develop another class of insecticide with a different mode of action, we have explored three classes of five membered heterocyclic carbamates (isoxazol-3-yl, pyrazol-5-yl, and pyrazol-4-yl), and 3-oxoisoxazole- 2(3H)-carboxamide as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChE) targeting wild type (G3) and resistant (Akron) malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae (Ag). Isoxazole carboxamide and carbamates were obtained regioselectively through judicious use of two different protocols. The final products were characterized and identified using ¹H and ¹³C NMR, and mass spectroscopy. In addition, the carboxamide structure was confirmed using X-ray diffraction. Several of the novel carbamates and carboxamides evaluated exhibited excellent toxicity towards susceptible G3 and resistant Akron strain An. gambiae (48f LC₅₀ G3 = 41 μg/mL, LC₅₀ Akron = 58 μg/mL, and 47i LC₅₀ G3 = 38 μg/mL, LC₅₀ Akron = 40 μg/mL). Hence, achieving the resistance- breaking goal. On the contrary, the commercial aryl methylcarbamates currently approved for indoor residual sprays (IRS) showed no potency towards the resistant strain An. gambiae (LC₅₀ G3 = 16-42 μg/mL, and LC₅₀ Akron >5,000 μg/mL). Further, we observed low toxicological cross-resistance ratios (RR) for the toxic isoxazol-3-yl and pyrazol-4-yl carbamates, and 3- oxoisoxazole-2(3H)-carboxamides (RR = 0.5-2.0). Amongst the commercial AChE inhibitors approved for IRS, only aldicarb exhibited such low RR (RR = 0.5), whereas the RR for commercial aryl methylcarbamates exceed 130-fold. The low RR observed for these novel heterocyclic inhibitors would certainly be favorable for a new anticholinesterase-based mosquitocide targeting both the susceptible and resistant strain mosquitoes. Although the overall selectivity (Ag vs human) did not exceed 24-fold, the heterocyclic carbamates and carboxamides synthesized by the author showed appreciable inhibition of resistant AChE (G119S) in comparison to commercial aryl carbamates, which showed no inhibition at all. During the course of this project, the isoxazol-3-yl and pyrazol-5-yl methylcarbamates proved to be unstable, and thus could not be isolated. The synthesis of pyrazol-4-yl methylcarbamates using N-methylcarbamoyl chloride proved particularly challenging due to the formation of by-products called allophanates. The similar Rf of the by-product and the desired final product made the isolation laborious and time-consuming. We have successfully overcome this problem by employing a new protocol, where triphosgene served as the carbonylating agent and N-methylamine in THF was used as the amine source. In addition, we have also developed another one-pot protocol for a safer synthesis of pyrazol-4-yl methylcarbamates utilizing 1,1- carbonyldiimidazole (CDI), and N-methylamine hydrogen chloride salt. With the pyrazol-4-yl core, apart from achieving excellent toxicity towards both strains of An. gambiae, we have also achieved excellent AgAChE vs hAChE selectivity (Ag vs h >100-fold). Due to our continued interest in developing this core, we have devised a convenient, scalable, no-column approach for the synthesis an intermediate 103 that can be utilized to synthesize these compounds more efficiently. / Ph. D.

This thesis describes the synthesis and reactivity of previously unprecedented bicyclic methylene aziridines via rhodium(II) catalysed cyclisation of α-allenic N-tosyloxycarbamates. These aziridines undergo reaction with organocuprates to give cis- disubstituted oxazolidinones by nucleophillic attack at the vinylic centre; plausible mechanisms for this process are discussed. Similar rhodium(II) catalysed cyclisations of β-allenic sulfamates afford cyclic enamines, aminocyclopropanes or bicyclic methylene aziridines; the product ratio depends on the allene substitution pattern. Suitably-designed substrates undergo trapping of the proposed intermediate amino allyl cation by internal nucleophiles or by cycloaddition. Finally, thermally-induced intramolecular cycloadditions of γ-allenic azides are described that give triazolines or [1,2,3]-triazoles.

Cette étude porte sur la réalisation de biocapteurs et la mise au point d'un système d'analyse par injection en flux continu (FIA). Ces systèmes sont destinés au dosage de composés polluants présents dans l'eau, notamment de pesticides organophosphorés et de carbamates. Ces biocapteurs associent une électrode de pH et une membrane enzymatique. Différentes techniques d'immobilisation des cholinestérases (acétylcholinestérase et butyrylcholinestérase) sur des membranes polyamide pré-activées, par piégeage dans un gel polymère et sur des membranes en toile de Nylon™ sont d'abord présentées. Ensuite, l'optimisation des conditions opératoires et la comparaison de leurs performances sont examinées. Des capteurs enzymatiques à réponse rapide, pour le dosage de substrat, sont réalisés grâce à une nouvelle technique d'immobilisation d'enzyme sur électrode de verre (Brevet français F-9011630, 1990). L'innovation de cette technique réside dans le dépôt par vaporisation d'un agent réticulant sur l'extrémité sensible de l'électrode de verre. Une simulation mathématique de la réponse de ces biocapteurs permet d'apprécier les quantités d'enzyme immobilisées. Un système FIA basé sur l'inhibition de l'acétylcholinestérase immobilisée au sein d'un réacteur tubulaire à une rangée de billes, est mis au point pour le dosage des organophosphates et des carbamates. Plusieurs paramètres opératoires sont d'abord optimisés. Ce système est ensuite appliqué au dosage d'insecticides contaminant accidentellement l'eau de mer. La réactivation, dans le réacteur, de l'enzyme inhibée permet sa réutilisation de nombreuses fois.