Each architectural exploration requires grounding. This body of work begins with an interest in that which made historical settlements authentic to a place. The thesis is focused first and foremost on the single most predictable, yet varying influence. The sun which acts as a clock, a calendar, and source of energy, has shaped architecture for thousands of years and should be considered with far greater attention in the future, both experientially but also thermally as source of energy. The proposal for an artist studio located on the Northumberland Straight in Nova Scotia will require an acute relation to the light and solar energy which the sun has to offer. The studio will attempt to function as a self sufficient working space in the landscape, using the resources locally available. As sole users, each artist will shape the habitable space based on specific needs, while continually keeping in mind that which drives the form, light, heat and energy. / How can the Solar Cycles of light and temperature inform a method of design, which allows the architecture to reflect the patterns of the sun?

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This study looked at the efficacy of using woodland caribou fecal pellets as a source of DNA to identify sampled animals and estimate population demographics. Fecal pellet samples were collected using systematic surveys of woodland caribou ranges in Jasper National Park, Alberta and the North Interlake region, Manitoba. Collection of pellet samples took place when snow was present to allow for tracking and location of caribou cratering areas and to obtain good quality DNA. DNA was amplified at ten polymorphic loci and one sex-specific primer. To estimate population size (N ̂) and population growth rate (λ), mark-recapture models were used. Model assumptions were evaluated and tested by stratifying available samples based on herd and gender information. In using the Mh (jackknife) model, the population sizes for south Jasper National Park were estimated at 125 animals in 2006-2007 (95% CI: 114, 143), 91 animals in 2007-2008 (95% CI: 83, 105) and 134 animals in 2008-2009 (95% CI: 123, 152); comparable to the mark-resight population estimates calculated over the same sampling periods. Genetic diversity indices for the different herds in Jasper National Park presented a lower genetic diversity for the smaller Maligne and Brazeau herds when compared to the larger Tonquin and A La Peche herds. Use of population assignment tests on samples collected in Jasper National Park indicated considerable admixture between the different herds despite earlier telemetry work demonstrating strong herd fidelity. The North Interlake population was estimated at 134 animals (95% CI: 122,151) in 2006-2007 and 106 animals (95% CI: 97, 121) in 2007-2008. Using data collected between 2005 and 2008, population growth rate for North Interlake was estimated at 0.83 (90% confidence interval: 0.65, 1.02). As a λ below 1 indicates a declining population, continue monitoring of the North Interlake herd is highly recommended. This studied clearly showed that the sampling of fecal DNA is a reliable and noninvasive alternative to monitoring woodland caribou population sizes and trends in the boreal and mountain regions.

Caribou have a longstanding cultural and environmental role, and have interacted with human groups across time. This thesis is a consideration of these interactions, exploring prehistoric and historic patterns of caribou usage by Cree people in northern Manitoba. Through zooarchaeological analysis, an ethnohistorical review, and community workshops and interviews with York Factory First Nation, the relationship between caribou populations and Cree use is illustrated, providing insight into abundance, movements, and the socio-cultural value of caribou over time. In doing so, context is provided for the present-day situation: connections between historical and modern herds are drawn, population and migration changes are highlighted, and the impact of hunting pressures, climatic variation, habitat changes, and food availability on caribou populations are contemplated. Caribou have long been central to the seasonal economy in northern Manitoba, and the use of these animals reflects their abundance and value.

Mountain caribou, an arboreal lichen-feeding ecotype of woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), have been extirpated from much of their historic range. Mountain caribou are federally listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) and red-listed by the BC government. Habitat loss and fragmentation of old growth forest is the ultimate cause for population declines. Yet, predation, linked to apparent competition, is the proximate cause for high rates of mortality. One of the most imperiled populations resides in the Purcell Mountains of BC, which was experimentally augmented in 2012 with 19 northern caribou from northern BC. The caribou-predator literature predominantly focuses on the relationship between caribou and wolves (Canis lupus) in northern caribou populations. However, cougars (Puma concolor) have been identified as a major predator of Purcells-South (PS) caribou, yet caribou-cougar interactions remain largely unstudied. I evaluated cougar predation risk in space and time on resident and translocated caribou in the Purcell Mountains. To do so, I determined biologically relevant seasons for resident, donor (i.e. not translocated) and translocated caribou, and cougars. I then used these seasons to investigate seasonal patterns of movement and habitat use between the three groups of caribou and cougars. Next I used resource selection functions (RSFs) to estimate habitat based seasonal variation in predation risk. I used these RSFs to compare the seasonal habitat selection and risk to cougar predation between resident and translocated caribou. Five resident caribou seasons and two cougar seasons were defined. Translocated caribou displayed inconsistent movement behavior with no clear seasonal pattern. Resident caribou remained at high elevations year-round and selected for low risk cougar habitat during the calving season at the home range scale and year-round at the landscape scale. Translocated caribou displayed risky behaviour throughout the study period by traveling to mid to low elevations and habitats selected by cougars. Translocated caribou displayed the same general pattern of elevational movement as their northern conspecifics, spending the majority of their time at lower elevations than resident caribou. Of the 19 translocated caribou, 17 (89%) died during the study, six of which were preyed upon by cougars, two by wolves, and the remainder due to accidents or unknown causes. In summary, translocated caribou did not adopt the predator avoidance or habitat selection strategies of resident caribou. I recommend that future efforts to augment small caribou populations use donor caribou experienced with similar predators and that possess comparable seasonal habitat use to the recipient population. However, because most suitable donor populations are declining, a soft-release of captive-reared mountain caribou might be the best option for mountain caribou recovery efforts. / Graduate / 0366 / 0329

Global and local climate patterns may affect barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) populations. I predicted global climate changes to be correlated with periods of population decline, and local changes to be more pronounced on the habitat of caribou with a declining population. In chapter 1, the Arctic Oscillation (AO), changes in normalized difference vegetation index and phenology were used as measures of global and local climate. In chapter 2 environmental variables and caribou presence points were used to build Maxent habitat models. There was no consistent correlation with the positive AO phase and periods of population decline, or phenology trends and the habitat of caribou with a declining population. Maxent models underestimated the amount of suitable habitat spatially and failed to model suitable habitat temporally. This thesis is the first to look at a range of density-independent variables over a long time period and model suitable habitat for multiple herds.

The North Caribou Terrane forms the core of Superior Province and records a protracted history of crustal growth and modification. At the centre of the North Caribou Terrane, lies the North Caribou greenstone belt, which is surrounded by granitoids of diverse compositions and ages. This study reports whole-rock geochemistry, zircon and titanite geochronology, and hornblende geobarometry on these plutonic rocks. Although zircons as old as 3132 ± 7 Ma were found, the main magmatic pulse occurred between 2880 and 2830 Ma, and geobarometry indicates tectonic thickening during this period. This was followed by widespread hydrothermal alteration and limited magmatism from 2760 to 2680 Ma, and shallow, brittle-ductile intrusions at circa 2630 Ma. From 2730 to 2630 Ma, intrusions were emplaced at increasingly shallow crustal levels. All of the rocks, except for the youngest pegmatitic intrusions, show similar patterns in major and trace elements, with a general trend toward more evolved compositions through time. These patterns indicate that the granitoids record mostly reworking of early intrusions, which is also consistent with patterns observed in the geochronology.

This study looked at the efficacy of using woodland caribou fecal pellets as a source of DNA to identify sampled animals and estimate population demographics. Fecal pellet samples were collected using systematic surveys of woodland caribou ranges in Jasper National Park, Alberta and the North Interlake region, Manitoba. Collection of pellet samples took place when snow was present to allow for tracking and location of caribou cratering areas and to obtain good quality DNA. DNA was amplified at ten polymorphic loci and one sex-specific primer. To estimate population size (N ̂) and population growth rate (λ), mark-recapture models were used. Model assumptions were evaluated and tested by stratifying available samples based on herd and gender information. In using the Mh (jackknife) model, the population sizes for south Jasper National Park were estimated at 125 animals in 2006-2007 (95% CI: 114, 143), 91 animals in 2007-2008 (95% CI: 83, 105) and 134 animals in 2008-2009 (95% CI: 123, 152); comparable to the mark-resight population estimates calculated over the same sampling periods. Genetic diversity indices for the different herds in Jasper National Park presented a lower genetic diversity for the smaller Maligne and Brazeau herds when compared to the larger Tonquin and A La Peche herds. Use of population assignment tests on samples collected in Jasper National Park indicated considerable admixture between the different herds despite earlier telemetry work demonstrating strong herd fidelity. The North Interlake population was estimated at 134 animals (95% CI: 122,151) in 2006-2007 and 106 animals (95% CI: 97, 121) in 2007-2008. Using data collected between 2005 and 2008, population growth rate for North Interlake was estimated at 0.83 (90% confidence interval: 0.65, 1.02). As a λ below 1 indicates a declining population, continue monitoring of the North Interlake herd is highly recommended. This studied clearly showed that the sampling of fecal DNA is a reliable and noninvasive alternative to monitoring woodland caribou population sizes and trends in the boreal and mountain regions.

There are a myriad of studies of animal habitat use that employ the notion of “home range”. Aggregated information on animal locations provide insight into a geographically discrete units that represents the use of space by an animal. Among various methods to delineate home range is the commonly used Kernel Density Estimation (KDE). The KDE method delineates home ranges based on an animal’s Utilization Distribution (UD). Specifically, a UD estimates a three-dimensional surface representing the probability or intensity of habitat use by an animal based on known locations. The choice of bandwidth (i.e., kernel radius) in KDE determines the level of smoothing and thus, ultimately circumscribes the size and shape of an animal’s home range. The bounds of interest in a home range can then be delineated using different volume contours of the UD (e.g., 95% or 50%). Habitat variables can then be assessed within the chosen UD contour(s) to ascertain selection for certain habitat characteristics. Home range analyses that utilize the KDE method, and indeed all methods of home range delineation, are subject to the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) whereby the changes in the scale at which data (e.g., habitat variables) are analysed can alter the outcome of statistical analyses and resulting ecological inferences. There are two components to MAUP, the scale and zoning effects. The scale effect refers to changes to the data and, consequently the outcome of analyses as a result of aggregating data to coarser spatial units of analysis. The aggregation of data can result in a loss of fine-scale detail as well as change the observed spatial patterns. The zone effect refers to how, when holding scale constant, the delineation of areal units in space can alter data values and ultimately the results of analyses. For example, habitat features captured within 1km2 gridded sampling units may change if instead 1km2 hexagon units are used. This thesis holds there are three “modifiable” factors in home range analyses that render it subject to the MAUP. The first two relate specifically to the use of the KDE method namely, the choice of bandwidth and UD contour. The third is the grain (e.g., resolution) by which habitat variables are aggregated, which applies to KDE but also more broadly to other quantitative methods of home range delineation In the following chapters we examine the changes in values of elevation and slope that result from changes to KDE bandwidth (Chapter 2) UD contour (Chapter 3) and DEM resolution (Chapter 4). In each chapter we also examine how the observed effects of altering each individual parameter of scale (e.g., bandwidth) changes when different scales of the other two parameters are considered (e.g., contour and resolution). We expected that the scale of each parameter examined would change the observed effect of other parameters. For example, that the homogenization of data at coarser resolutions would reduce the degree of difference in variable values between UD contours of each home range. To explore the potential effects of MAUP on home range analyses we used as model population 13 northern woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus). We created seasonal home ranges (winter, calving, summer, rut and fall) for each caribou using three different KDE bandwidths. Within each home range we delineated four contours based on differing levels of an animal’s UD. We then calculated values of elevation and slope (mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation) using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) aggregated to four different resolutions within the contours of each seasonal home range. We found that each parameter of scale significantly changed the values of elevation and slope within the home ranges of the model caribou population. The magnitude as well as direction of change in slope and elevation often varied depending the specific contour or season. There was a greater decrease in the variability of elevation within the fall and winter seasons at smaller KDE bandwidths. The topographic variables were significantly different between all contours of caribou home ranges and the difference between contours were in general, significantly higher in fall and winter (elevation) or calving and summer (slope). The mean and SD of slope decreased at coarser resolutions in all caribou home ranges, whereas there was no change in elevation. We also found interactive effects of all three parameters of scale, although these were not always as direct as initially anticipated. Each parameter examined (bandwidth, contour and resolution) may potentially alter the outcome of northern woodland caribou habitat analyses. We conclude that home range analyses that utilize the KDE method may be subject to MAUP by virtue the ability to modify the spatial dimensions of the units of analysis. As such, in habitat analyses using the KDE careful consideration should be given to the choice of bandwidth, UD contour and habitat variable resolution. / Graduate / 0366 / 0329 / spicym@uvic.ca