The European Water Framework Directive 2000 established a new emphasis for the management of freshwaters by setting ecologically-based water quality targets that are to be achieved through holistic, catchment-scale, ecosystem management. However, significant knowledge gaps exist in the understanding of the cumulative effectiveness of multiple mitigation measures on a number of pollutants at a catchment scale. This research contributes to improved understanding of the effectiveness of an ecosystem management approach to deliver catchment-scale water quality improvements on the National Trust Holnicote Estate on Exmoor, UK. This research is part of a larger multi-objective project funded by the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), to demonstrate the benefits of land use interventions for the management of flood risk. This thesis evaluates the effects of upland ditch blocking on physico-chemical and biological parameters of water quality in an upland Horner Water catchment one year after habitat restoration, and establishes a solid baseline for the monitoring of the effects of current and future land management changes in a lowland, intensively managed, agricultural Aller catchment. The spatial variability of soil physical and chemical properties (bulk density, total carbon (TN), nitrogen (TN), C:N ratio, δ15N, total phosphorus (TP), inorganic phosphorus (IP), organic phosphorus (OP)) and water quality determinands (suspended sediment (SS), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), total particulate carbon (TPC), total oxidised nitrogen (TON) and dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP)) in the two study catchments with contrasting land use has been characterised and linked to the prevailing land use. Agricultural land use resulted in extensive homogenisation of soil properties. The spatial dependence of all soil properties, except for bulk density and δ15N, was stronger in the agricultural than the semi-natural catchment (nugget:sill ratio 0.10-0.42 in the Aller and 0.15-0.94 in Horner Water), while bulk density, TP, inorganic phosphorus (IP), organic phosphorus (OP), C:N ratio, δ15N and carbon storage showed a longer range of spatial auto-correlation in the agricultural catchment (2,807-3,191 m in the Aller and 545-2,599 m Horner Water). The central tendency (mean, median) of all soil properties, except for IP and δ15N, also differed significantly between the two catchments (P < 0.01). The observed extensive alteration of soil physical and chemical properties in the agricultural catchment is likely to have long-term implications for the restoration of ecosystem functioning and water quality management. The intensive land use seems to have resulted in an altered ‘catchment metabolism’, manifested in a proportionally greater total fluvial carbon (dissolved and particulate) export from the agricultural than the semi-natural catchment. The agricultural catchment supported significantly higher DOC concentrations (P < 0.05) and the quality of DOC differed markedly between the two study catchments. The prevalence of more humic, higher molecular weight compounds in the agricultural catchment and simpler, lower molecular weight compounds in the semi-natural catchment, indicated enhanced microbial turnover of fluvial DOC in the agricultural catchment as well as additional allochtonous terrestrial sources. During an eight month period for which a comparable continuous turbidity record was available, the estimated SS yields from the agricultural catchment (25.5-116.2 t km2) were higher than from the semi-natural catchment (21.7-57.8 t km2). Further, the agricultural catchment exported proportionally more TPC (0.51-2.59 kg mm-1) than the semi-natural catchment (0.36-0.97 kg mm-1) and a similar amount of DOC (0.26-0.52 kg mm-1 in the Aller and 0.24-0.32 kg mm-1 in Horner Water), when normalised by catchment area and total discharge, despite the lower total soil carbon pool, thus indicating an enhanced fluvial loss of sediment and carbon from the intensively managed catchment. Whilst detection of catchment-scale effects of mitigation measures typically requires high resolution, resource-intensive, long term data sets, this research has found that simple approaches can be effective in bridging the gap between fine scale ecosystem functioning and catchment-scale processes. Here, the new macro-invertebrate index PSI (Proportion of Sediment-sensitive Invertebrates) has been shown to be more closely related to a physical measure of sedimentation (% fine bed sediment cover) (P = 0.002) than existing non-pressure specific macro-invertebrate metrics such as the Lotic Index for Flow Evaluation (LIFE) and % Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera & Trichoptera abundance (% EPT) (P = 0.014). Further testing of PSI along a pronounced environmental gradient is recommended as PSI and % fine bed sediment cover have the potential to become a sensitive tool for the setting and monitoring of twin sedimentation targets. Upland ditch management has not had any discernible effect on water quality in the semi-natural upland catchment one year after restoration, which may be due to the short-term post-restoration monitoring period but may also reflect benign effects of large-scale earth moving works on this high quality environment. The conceptual understanding of catchment processes developed in this thesis suggests that cumulatively, the recently completed mitigation works in the lowland agricultural catchment will likely result in reduced sediment and nutrient input into the aquatic environment. However, further research is needed to build on this detailed baseline characterisation and inform the understanding of the effectiveness of combined mitigation measures to reduce the flux of multiple contaminants at the catchment scale.

In recent years there has been an increasing awareness of the detrimental influence of diffuse sources of pollution on aquatic systems and of the integral role played by sediment in the mobilisation and transport of pollutants. The recognition of the environmental, societal and economic importance of the ecological health of aquatic environments has led to a change in emphasis regarding agricultural and environmental policy. To implement successful delivery of emerging policy requirements, there is a current need to have an enhanced understanding of the relationship between different forms of land use and sources of diffuse pollution, particularly sources of fine sediment. To understand the potential impacts of future land use changes, including environmental conservation measures on sources of sediment, it is useful to consider them within a longer-term context. This study has successfully applied the sediment source fingerprinting technique to floodplain overbank sediment cores in a retrospective study of six diverse UK river catchments with identified sediment problems. The varying estimates of relative sediment contributions from differing sources have been compared to known land use change in the study catchments over concurrent time periods, to explore any associations which might be apparent. Over the last 40 years, the increased cultivation of high erosion risk crops, such as those which are harvested late in the season (e.g. maize) and those which are sown in the autumn (e.g. winter wheat), has contributed disproportionately to the total sediment load relative to the area of land occupied by such cultivation. Increased stocking densities have resulted in increased relative sediment contributions from grassland sources, particularly intensively managed temporary grassland, but can have an even greater impact on sediment contributions derived from channel bank sources. The installation and maintenance of drainage for agriculture or for flood risk management has resulted in increased relative sediment loads from channel bank and associated sub-surface sources. Through the further development of such research, the efficacy of mitigation measures can be tested against evidence-based historic trends and those management approaches which provide identifiable improvements can be developed as best practice options for future land management targeted at reducing the negative impacts of excessive sediment ingress to river systems. The design of the source fingerprinting methodology used in this work was based on an established successful approach and this was developed further through the incorporation of a number of refinements designed to improve the robustness of the technique and expedite its implementation.

Research was undertaken for this thesis to uncover characteristics of resilient volunteers and stewardship groups, both of which are a major element of the social mobilisation strategy used in Australia to manage natural resources. The ability of volunteers and groups to overcome problems, deal with new issues as they arise, and keep going under pressure is termed 'resilience'. A 'resilience management' approach to natural resource management uses the idea of 'adaptive change' or panarchy to understand the development of resilience and thus, sustainability in human communities. According to this theory, sustainable communities are both changeable and stable, adapting to new situations as they arise. The research approach used in the study is called 'phenomenography'. It is an interpretive approach, based on the central assumption that there is variation in the ways in which people experience the same phenomenon. Phenomenography was used to see if lessons about resilience and sustainability could be learnt from catchment volunteers. All participants were 'catchment volunteers' working along the east coast of Queensland. They were drawn from a variety of organisations and programs including Landcare; Coastcare; Bushcare; Greening Australia; Waterwatch; treeplanting groups; and Integrated Catchment Management Committees. A total of 26 personal and group interviews involving 85 participants were conducted. Interviews comprised a series of semi-structured questions that were tape-recorded, then transcribed verbatim. Through a process of comparing and contrasting themes in the transcriptions, six conceptions emerged. These were: catchment volunteering was experienced as seeking and maintaining balance; developing/maintaining an identity; empowerment; learning; networking; and sustainable. Analysis of these themes was used to develop a model of catchment volunteer experiences depicting relationships between conceptions (termed the 'Outcome Space' in phenomenography). In this study the Outcome Space emerged as a set of scales, signifying the importance of keeping a balanced perspective on volunteering - a balance between things such as personal goals and organisational goals; between dedication to an unpaid vocation and family life; and between social benefits and environmental benefits. From the Outcome Space, several conceptual and practical outcomes were developed. These included: a typology of participation based on volunteer experiences; a table describing forms of empowerment in catchment volunteering; a table listing drivers for catchment volunteers; an illustration of Holling and Gunderson's adaptive cycle as it applies to stewardship groups; a table of factors that enhance the resilience and sustainability of stewardship groups; a model of the relationship between external pressures and resilient, sustainable stewardship groups; and guidelines for developing resilient sustainable stewardship groups. These outcomes contribute to an understanding of individual, group and community level responses to environmental issues; and how resilience can be developed in volunteers and stewardship groups and programs.

In this thesis I examine and explore whether and if Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) inspired water reforms respond to- and address the diverse realities of women and men in informal (and formal) rural economies of Sekororo, South Africa and Ward 17 in Gwanda, Zimbabwe which are both in the Limpopo basin. South Africa and Zimbabwe, like other southern African countries, embarked on IWRMinspired water reforms, culminating in the promulgation of the National Water Acts in 1998, four years after the attainment of South Africa’s democracy in 1994 and 18 years after Zimbabwe attained independence in 1980. I argue that the adoption of IWRM, which emphasises second generation water issues such as demand management, water quality, environmental flow requirements etc, and not the development of water infrastructure, begs the question whether such reforms can make a meaningful contribution to the development agenda in countries where, during apartheid and colonialism, the water rights (among other rights) of millions of blacks were compromised because of unjust legislation and skewed underinvestment in water infrastructure

In this thesis I examine and explore whether and if Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) inspired water reforms respond to- and address the diverse realities of women and men in informal (and formal) rural economies of Sekororo, South Africa and Ward 17 in Gwanda, Zimbabwe which are both in the Limpopo basin. South Africa and Zimbabwe, like other southern African countries, embarked on IWRMinspired water reforms, culminating in the promulgation of the National Water Acts in 1998, four years after the attainment of South Africa’s democracy in 1994 and 18 years after Zimbabwe attained independence in 1980. I argue that the adoption of IWRM, which emphasises second generation water issues such as demand management, water quality, environmental flow requirements etc, and not the development of water infrastructure, begs the question whether such reforms can make a meaningful contribution to the development agenda in countries where, during apartheid and colonialism, the water rights (among other rights) of millions of blacks were compromised because of unjust legislation and skewed underinvestment in water infrastructure

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / In this thesis I examine and explore whether and if Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) inspired water reforms respond to- and address the diverse realities of women and men in informal (and formal) rural economies of Sekororo, South Africa and Ward 17 in Gwanda, Zimbabwe which are both in the Limpopo basin. South Africa and Zimbabwe, like other southern African countries, embarked on IWRM inspired water reforms, culminating in the promulgation of the National Water Acts in 1998, four years after the attainment of South Africa's democracy in 1994 and 18 years after Zimbabwe attained independence in 1980. I argue that the adoption of IWRM, which emphasises second generation water issues such as demand management, water quality, environmental flow requirements etc, and not the development of water infrastructure, begs the question whether such reforms can make a meaningful contribution to the development agenda in countries where, during apartheid and colonialism, the water rights (among other rights) of millions of blacks were compromised because of unjust legislation and skewed underinvestment in water infrastructure. / South Africa

The South African coastal and marine environment is an essential ecologic and economic asset. Its associated services and products are substantially contributing to economic growth and sustainable development of the country. However, it is internationally and nationally recognised that land-based marine pollution (LBMP) is the most important single risk to the health and sustainability of coastal and marine waters and the associated ecosystems. The regulation of LBMP at the national level is still difficult and challenging. The issue of LBMP management has only recently been introduced in South Africa with the development of the National Programme of Action to Protect Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, 2008. South Africa is only starting to consider the question of LBMP regulation. This thesis aims to conduct a critical analysis of the South African regulatory framework pertaining to LBMP in comparison to international best practice and the French regulatory framework, in order to identify the key South African challenges in this regard and to make recommendations to address them. In order to do so, this research commences by providing an analysis of LBMP and the theoretical foundations associated with LBMP regulation, as promoted by international best practice. The study identifies and assesses the main regulatory features to be considered in the development, implementation and/or assessment of a regulatory framework pertaining to LBMP. These features will form the methodological framework to conduct the comparative legal assessment between the French and South African regulatory frameworks pertaining to LBMP. This thesis then provides a detailed and thorough legal analysis of the French and South African regulatory frameworks pertaining to LBMP using the methodological framework developed using guidance from international best practice. Finally, based on lessons learnt from the comparative legal study, this study concludes with a set of recommendations for the South African context. / Thesis (LL.D.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

This study is an investigation into water management policies in South Africa, their effect on water users and the perceptions users have of these policies. The investigation begins with an exposition of concepts such as water demand management (WDM), as well as integrated water resource management (IWRM). A sub-discourse of the main theme is the societal tendency to neglect its common property. Garret Hardin's groundbreaking observations on the "tragedy of the commons" (1968) are explored in an effort to locate issues of relevance in effective water management strategies. In contemplating the commons, it is evident that aspects of morality and ethics are involved. The morality of a society be it in a global or national context, seems to manifest itself in legislation and policies, and in the way these are implemented. The relevance of good governance, hydropolitics and sustainable development is also discussed to provide the necessary theoretical background to an understanding of the relationship between consumers and the water commons. Access to safe drinking water is protected in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, 108 of 1996. Flowing from the government's obligation to take reasonable legislative and other measures to achieve the progressive realisation of fundamental human rights stipulated in section 27(2) of the Constitution, the challenge since 1994 has been to provide access to water for all inhabitants and to manage the available water resources effectively. Furthermore, the objective of subsequent water legislation such as the National Water Act, 36 of 1998 and regulatory plans, like the National Water Resource Strategy has been to incorporate international trends in water governance. The Department of Water and Environmental Affairs (DWEA) divided South Africa into 19 regions, called water management areas (WMA). In this study, attention is focused on what constitutes a catchment and how a catchment management agency (CMA) governs its water resources. A description is provided of the functions of water user associations (WUAs) and how ththe Lower Orange Catchment Management Area is, for example, the blueprint from which stakeholders develop their goals. In this study, the water situation in the Lower Orange Water Management Area is under scrutiny. The focus is on the three main institutional components of water management (the Lower Orange catchment management, the Upington Islands Water User Association [UIWUA] and the //Khara Hais Local Municipality). The progress of the establishment of the Lower Orange Catchment Management Agency is outlined over a period of five years. Meanwhile, the Upington Islands Water User Association was developed and this has grown in stature. The work being done by these institutions is investigated by looking at grassroots effects, especially in respect of irrigation activities. The unique water management circumstances of the //Khara Hais Local Municipality are then investigated along with the plans outlined in their Integrated Development Plan {lOP) and their Water Services Development Plane Internal Strategic Perspective (ISP) of(WSDP). Because local irrigation operations consume most of the available surface water in the Lower Orange Water Management Area, irrigation farmers and their activities warrant closer attention. A historical overview is given of the development of irrigation in the region followed by an assessment of the role of two of the most prominent historical figures in Upington, Reverend Adriaan Schroder and Abraham "Holbors" September. Ultimately, however, the focus falls on the current state of irrigation in the area. It is possible to distinguish between the approach of large commercial farming operations and that of smaller irrigation farming units to irrigation. Specific attention is given to the perceptions of irrigation farmers as far as the policies and legislation pertaining to water issues is concerned. This study will hopefully provide the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs(DWEA), //Khara Hais Local Municipality and organised agriculture with some recommendations on efficient integrated water management strategies. It might well be of value to other municipalities who are experiencing similar problems. The aim has been to identify typical problems and potential disputes between water management institutions and relevant role-players. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Public Management and Administration))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.

This study is an investigation into water management policies in South Africa, their effect on water users and the perceptions users have of these policies. The investigation begins with an exposition of concepts such as water demand management (WDM), as well as integrated water resource management (IWRM). A sub-discourse of the main theme is the societal tendency to neglect its common property. Garret Hardin's groundbreaking observations on the "tragedy of the commons" (1968) are explored in an effort to locate issues of relevance in effective water management strategies. In contemplating the commons, it is evident that aspects of morality and ethics are involved. The morality of a society be it in a global or national context, seems to manifest itself in legislation and policies, and in the way these are implemented. The relevance of good governance, hydropolitics and sustainable development is also discussed to provide the necessary theoretical background to an understanding of the relationship between consumers and the water commons. Access to safe drinking water is protected in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, 108 of 1996. Flowing from the government's obligation to take reasonable legislative and other measures to achieve the progressive realisation of fundamental human rights stipulated in section 27(2) of the Constitution, the challenge since 1994 has been to provide access to water for all inhabitants and to manage the available water resources effectively. Furthermore, the objective of subsequent water legislation such as the National Water Act, 36 of 1998 and regulatory plans, like the National Water Resource Strategy has been to incorporate international trends in water governance. The Department of Water and Environmental Affairs (DWEA) divided South Africa into 19 regions, called water management areas (WMA). In this study, attention is focused on what constitutes a catchment and how a catchment management agency (CMA) governs its water resources. A description is provided of the functions of water user associations (WUAs) and how ththe Lower Orange Catchment Management Area is, for example, the blueprint from which stakeholders develop their goals. In this study, the water situation in the Lower Orange Water Management Area is under scrutiny. The focus is on the three main institutional components of water management (the Lower Orange catchment management, the Upington Islands Water User Association [UIWUA] and the //Khara Hais Local Municipality). The progress of the establishment of the Lower Orange Catchment Management Agency is outlined over a period of five years. Meanwhile, the Upington Islands Water User Association was developed and this has grown in stature. The work being done by these institutions is investigated by looking at grassroots effects, especially in respect of irrigation activities. The unique water management circumstances of the //Khara Hais Local Municipality are then investigated along with the plans outlined in their Integrated Development Plan {lOP) and their Water Services Development Plane Internal Strategic Perspective (ISP) of(WSDP). Because local irrigation operations consume most of the available surface water in the Lower Orange Water Management Area, irrigation farmers and their activities warrant closer attention. A historical overview is given of the development of irrigation in the region followed by an assessment of the role of two of the most prominent historical figures in Upington, Reverend Adriaan Schroder and Abraham "Holbors" September. Ultimately, however, the focus falls on the current state of irrigation in the area. It is possible to distinguish between the approach of large commercial farming operations and that of smaller irrigation farming units to irrigation. Specific attention is given to the perceptions of irrigation farmers as far as the policies and legislation pertaining to water issues is concerned. This study will hopefully provide the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs(DWEA), //Khara Hais Local Municipality and organised agriculture with some recommendations on efficient integrated water management strategies. It might well be of value to other municipalities who are experiencing similar problems. The aim has been to identify typical problems and potential disputes between water management institutions and relevant role-players. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Public Management and Administration))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.

The South African coastal and marine environment is an essential ecologic and economic asset. Its associated services and products are substantially contributing to economic growth and sustainable development of the country. However, it is internationally and nationally recognised that land-based marine pollution (LBMP) is the most important single risk to the health and sustainability of coastal and marine waters and the associated ecosystems. The regulation of LBMP at the national level is still difficult and challenging. The issue of LBMP management has only recently been introduced in South Africa with the development of the National Programme of Action to Protect Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, 2008. South Africa is only starting to consider the question of LBMP regulation. This thesis aims to conduct a critical analysis of the South African regulatory framework pertaining to LBMP in comparison to international best practice and the French regulatory framework, in order to identify the key South African challenges in this regard and to make recommendations to address them. In order to do so, this research commences by providing an analysis of LBMP and the theoretical foundations associated with LBMP regulation, as promoted by international best practice. The study identifies and assesses the main regulatory features to be considered in the development, implementation and/or assessment of a regulatory framework pertaining to LBMP. These features will form the methodological framework to conduct the comparative legal assessment between the French and South African regulatory frameworks pertaining to LBMP. This thesis then provides a detailed and thorough legal analysis of the French and South African regulatory frameworks pertaining to LBMP using the methodological framework developed using guidance from international best practice. Finally, based on lessons learnt from the comparative legal study, this study concludes with a set of recommendations for the South African context. / Thesis (LL.D.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.