Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de Ingeniero Forestal

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RESUME : Le Sud-Est du Niger est soumis au phénomène dérosion éolienne. Dans la zone de Gouré, les cuvettes oasiennes, principales sources de productions agricoles et de revenus, sont menacées de disparition à cause de lensablement. Des opérations de fixation de dunes sont entreprises pour sauver ce capital productif. Lévaluation de la technique de fixation mécanique des dunes utilisée dans la zone a montré que celle-ci est efficace dans la restauration écologique du milieu. Trois années après la mise en place des palissades anti-érosives, à base des branchages de Leptadenia pyrotechnica, une végétation spontanée, comprenant 58 espèces (20 familles), dont 17 pérennes, sétait installée à lintérieur du clayonnage, soit 42 espèces de plus que dans les zones non traitées. Au fil des ans, la composition floristique sest progressivement stabilisée, témoignant ainsi dune réduction notable des perturbations du milieu engendrées par laction érosive des vents. Dans une expérimentation de fixation biologique de dunes, sept espèces ligneuses, dont cinq autochtones (Acacia senegal, A. tortilis, A. nilotica, Bauhinia rufescens, Balanites aegyptiaca), et deux allochtones (Prosopis juliflora et P. chilensis) ont été testées. En pépinière, les espèces ont subi un stress hydrique par interruption darrosage durant six jours. Les taux dhydratation foliaire ont été déterminés, afin dévaluer leur capacité respective à limiter les pertes deau par transpiration. Dans un essai de terrain, les espèces ont été plantées sur un cordon dunaire, préfixé mécaniquement, en vue de tester leur aptitude à la stabilisation des dunes. Les taux de survie sur trois années ont été calculés et la croissance en hauteur mesurée. Les résultats en pépinière ont montré, quaprès six jours de stress hydrique, Acacia senegal, A. tortilis, Prosopis chilensis et A. nilotica sont les quatre espèces limitant le mieux les pertes en eau. Les résultats sur site ont montré que la meilleure combinaison en matière de fixation de dunes dans cette zone serait dassocier lespèce de Prosopis chilensis (fort taux de survie et croissance rapide) avec A. tortilis et/ou A. nilotica (survie et croissance relativement appréciables et intérêt économique plus important). Dans loptique dun essai dinoculation mycorhizienne, des échantillons de sols de Gouré ont été récoltés sous dix espèces ligneuses locales et exotiques, avec lobjectif didentifier les différents types de champignons mycorhiziens à arbuscules (CMA) et de produire un inoculum indigène par le biais de trois plantes-pièges locales ; le mil, le sorgho et le niébé. Les résultats ont mis en évidence la présence de deux familles de Glomales dans les sols du département de Gouré, Glomaceae (appartenant au genre Glomus) et Gigasporaceae. Avec plus de 56 % des spores, le genre Glomus est le plus abondant des Glomales identifiées et aussi le plus viable (55,80 % des spores vivantes). La croissance en hauteur des parties aériennes du sorgho et du niébé a été significativement stimulée par linoculation. Les trois cultures sont équivalentes dans le piégeage des spores. Un inoculum mycorhizien composite de souches indigènes a été produit à partir de cette culture sporale. Lefficacité de la mycorhization naturelle a été comparée à celles des apports de ce complexe mycorhizien indigène et du Glomus intraradices. Un substrat de culture naturel, non stérilisé, a été inoculé par le complexe mycorhizien de souches indigènes ou par du Glomus intraradices. Les effets de linoculation ont été observés sur cinq espèces ligneuses, dont trois Acacias (A. nilotica, A. tortilis, A. senegal), Bauhinia rufescens et Prosopis chilensis, en pépinière et en sol dunaire. En pépinière, les espèces ont subi un stress hydrique par interruption darrosage durant six jours. Les taux dhydratation foliaire ont été calculés, afin dévaluer les effets de la mycorhization sur la limitation des pertes deau par transpiration. Les différents taux de mycorhization ont été déterminés, ainsi que la croissance des plants et la production de la biomasse totale. Dans un essai de terrain, les espèces inoculées et non inoculées ont été plantées sur un cordon dunaire, préfixé mécaniquement, en vue dévaluer les effets des différents apports mycorhiziens au champ sur la croissance en hauteur des plants. Les résultats en pépinière ont montré que (i) le sol de pépinière non stérilisé contient des CMA (champignon mycorhizien à arbuscules) endogènes aussi infectifs que les souches contrôlées ; (ii) lapport du Glomus intraradices est efficace dans la stimulation de la production de biomasse totale et (iii) la mycorhization naturelle est quasi aussi efficace que les deux apports mycorhiziens dans la stimulation de la croissance en hauteur et dans la limitation de la perte deau des espèces par transpiration. Les résultats sur site confirment lefficacité comparable de la mycorhization naturelle et de celle des apports mycorhiziens. Bien que leffet du G. intraradices apparaisse être bénéfique en certains points chez quelques espèces, les effets observés ne justifient pas doffice de le préférer à linoculum composite de souches indigènes, ni à la mycorhization naturelle dans cette zone. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- SUMMARY: The Southeastern of Niger Republic is subjected to the phenomenon of wind erosion. In Gouré, the oasis basins, which are the main source of agricultural productions and incomes, are threatened to disappear because of the sand silting up. Operations of sand dunes fixation are taken to save this productive capital. Assessment of the mechanical sand dunes fixation technique, used in this area, showed that this technique is effective in the ecological restoration of the environment. Three years after the implementation of the anti erosive fences, made of Leptadenia pyrotechnica branches, spontaneous floral vegetation, including 58 species (20 families) of which 17 perennials, had settled down inside the fences, owing 42 species more than in the untreated areas. Over the years, the floral composition gradually stabilized proving then a considerable reduction of the environmental disturbances caused by the erosive winds action. In a biological sand dunes fixation experiment, seven woody species, of which five natives (Acacia senegal, A. tortilis, A. nilotica, Bauhinia rufescens and Balanites aegyptiaca) and two exotic (Prosopis juliflora and P. chilensis) have been tested in that zone of the Southeastern of Niger Republic. In nursery, species underwent a water stress by interrupting the watering during six days. Foliar hydration has been determined in order to evaluate their capacity to limit water loss. In a field experiment, species have been planted on a mechanically prefixed sand dune cord in order to test their ability in sand dunes stabilization. Survival rates during the first three years have been calculated and height growth was measured. In nursery, results showed that, after six days of water stress, Acacia senegal, A. tortilis, P. chilensis and A. nilotica are the four species limiting the best the losses in water. Results on site showed that the best combination in sand dunes fixation, in this zone, would be the association of Prosopis chilensis specie (high survival rate and fast growth) with A. tortilis and/or A. nilotica (survival and growth relatively substantial and more important economic interest). In the optics of a further mycorrhizal inoculation essay, soil samples from Gouré department were collected beneath ten mature native and exotic tree species in order to identify the types of associated arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and to produce an indigenous inoculum by growing three local trap cultures including millet, sorghum and cowpea. The results highlighted the presence of two families of Glomales in the soils including Glomaceae (belonging to the genus Glomus) and Gigasporaceae. With more than 56 % of spores, the genus Glomus is the most abundant of the identified Glomales and the most viable (55, 80 % of the live spores). The length growth of sorghum and cowpea plants was significantly stimulated by inoculation. The three trap cultures species are equivalent in the spores trapping. An indigenous mycorrhizal complex was produced from this spore culture. Effects of the natural mycorhization were compared with those of the addition of this indigenous mycorrhizal complex and Glomus intraradices. A natural unsterile culture substrate was inoculated with the indigenous inoculum or with G. Intraradices. Inoculation effects were assessed on five woody species, among which three Acacias species (A. nilotica, A. tortilis, A. senegal), Bauhinia rufescens and Prosopis chilensis, in a tree nursery and on a sand dune of Gouré. In the nursery, species underwent a water stress by interrupting the watering during six days. Foliar hydration has been determined in order to evaluate the respective effects of the mycorrhizal inoculation on the water loss limitation. Mycorrhizal root colonization has been determined as well as plant height and total biomass. In a field experiment, inoculated and non inoculated species have been planted on a mechanically prefixed sand dune portion in order to evaluate the effects of mycorrhizal inoculations on growth in the field. Results in nursery showed that (i) the non sterile soil would contain some endogenous AMF (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) as infectious as those in soils with mycorrhizal additions; (ii) addition of Glomus intraradices would be efficient to stimulate total biomass and (iii) natural mycorhization would be as efficient as both mycorrhizal addition in growth stimulation and water loss limitation by transpiration. Results on site confirm the comparable effectiveness of the natural mycorhization and mycorrhizal additions. Although the addition of G. intraradices appears to be slightly superior by some aspects on some species, the observed effects do not justify preferring it, when compared to indigenous composite inoculum or to natural mycorhization in this zone.

Although there are no authenticated records of human illness due to PSP in New Zealand, nationwide phytoplankton and shellfish toxicity monitoring programmes have revealed that the incidence of PSP contamination and the occurrence of the toxic Alexandrium species are more common than previously realised (Mackenzie et al., 2004). A full understanding of the mechanism of uptake, accumulation and toxin dynamics of bivalves feeding on toxic algae is fundamental for improving future regulations in the shellfish toxicity monitoring program across the country. This thesis examines the effects of toxic dinoflagellates and PSP toxins on the physiology and behaviour of bivalve molluscs. This focus arose because these aspects have not been widely studied before in New Zealand. The basic hypothesis tested was that bivalve molluscs differ in their ability to metabolise PSP toxins produced by Alexandrium tamarense and are able to transform toxins and may have special mechanisms to avoid toxin uptake. To test this hypothesis, different physiological/behavioural experiments and quantification of PSP toxins in bivalves tissues were carried out on mussels (Perna canaliculus), clams (Paphies donacina and Dosinia anus), scallops (Pecten novaezelandiae) and oysters (Ostrea chilensis) from the South Island of New Zealand. Measurements of clearance rate were used to test the sensitivity of the bivalves to PSP toxins. Other studies that involved intoxication and detoxification periods were carried out on three species of bivalves (P. canaliculus, P. donacina, P. novaezelandiae), using physiological responses (clearance and excretion rate) and analysis of PSP toxins in the tissues over these periods. Complementary experiments that investigated other responses in bivalves fed with the toxic cells were also carried out. These included byssus production, and the presence of toxic cells in the faeces of mussels, the siphon activity and burrowing depth in clams and the oxygen consumption in scallops. The most resistant species to PSP toxins were the mussel, Perna canaliculus and the clam, Dosinia anus. Both species fed actively on toxic dinoflagellates and accumulated toxins. The intoxication and detoxication rate of the mussel was faster than the other species of bivalve studied (P. donacina and P. novaezelandiae) which confirm mussels as a good sentinel species for early warning of toxic algal blooms. The clearance rate of the clam, Paphies donacina decreased when fed on Alexandrium species but the effect of the PSP toxins on this physiological response was not confirmed. Over the detoxification period of 8 days, this clam did not detoxify which suggests that its ability to retain high level of toxins for an extensive period may be critical for public health management. The scallop, Pecten novaezelandiae was clearly the most sensitive species to the PSP toxins and the clearance rate was significantly lower in the presence of the toxic dinoflagellate A. tamarense. Although the clearance rate was low, the scallops still fed on the toxic dinoflagellate and accumulated PSP toxins in the tissues. The scallops detoxified slowly which would affect the market for this bivalve in the presence of a toxic algal bloom. This bivalve would retain PSP toxins for longer period of time than other species such as mussels. The oyster, Ostrea chilensis, had erratic clearance rate and did not respond clearly to any of the variables tested over the time. Oysters accumulated more toxins than the sensitive species, but they had been exposed to two more days of feeding with A. tamarense; therefore this species may actually have a similar intoxication responses to P. novaezalandiae and P. donacina. The results from this thesis suggest further directions for the aquaculture sector and ongoing research in this field, which in future will lead to a better selection of suitable species for culture as well as species for monitoring of PSP toxins. In the future, research that integrates field and controlled laboratory studies will expand to other species of interest and a more complete record will in time be available in order to manage more efficiently the negative effects that harmful algal blooms may have in New Zealand.

Among efforts to develop sustainable approaches towards the intensive rearing of finfish within open marine waters, is the development of integrated aquaculture techniques. Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), has been promoted as a way to reduce unwanted environmental impacts associated with the intensive production of marine finfish within net-pens. The principle aim of this concept, is the bioremediation of nutrient discharges from fish aquaculture. This is to be achieved by integrating fish cultivation with the growing of species from lower trophic levels, which use the nutrient discharges as a food source. Many studies have been performed that investigate the ability of various species of macroalgae to remove dissolved nutrient discharges, and the ability bivalves to remove solid-bound nutrients, presented as either fish faeces, or an enhanced production of phytoplankton that may be promoted by nutrients emitted by fish-farms. IMTA has also been suggested as a means to improve overall productivity per unit of feed applied to fish, through the conversion of nutrient emissions into additional biomass, such as the tissues of macroalgae or bivalves. Within the research community which focuses upon the environmental impacts of aquaculture, there is a growing awareness that sustainable solutions to aquaculture production cannot be realised through a focus restricted to the growing-phase, and to a limited set of environmental impacts which may this activity may produce. This is because changes to a specific production phase often promote changes at phases located elsewhere along a products value chain. Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA), is a method employed for modelling the environmental impacts that may potentially be generated across the value chain of a product. It is particularly useful for identifying instances of environmental impact shifting; a term used to describe situations where efforts to reduce the contribution of a specific production phase towards one or more environmental impacts, has the effect of either displacing this contribution to another phase, or increases the contribution of production towards different environmental impacts. Despite its apparent suitability, LCA has not previously been fully applied to the environmental impact modelling of open-water IMTA systems. The work presented in the following thesis advances this research front, by using LCA to explore the potential for environmental problem shifting occurring as a consequence of replacing intensive monoculture production, with IMTA. Comprehensive datasets have been acquired from the Chilean aquaculture industry, describing the production of aquafeed and Salmo salar, as well as for the production of the Phaeophytic macroalga, Macrocystis pyrifera, and the molluscan bivalve, Mytilus chilensis. Using LCA methodology, the production of salmon feed, and the production of S.salar, M.pyrifera and M.chilensis, have been assessed for their capacity to contribute towards a variety of global-scale, environmental impacts. IMTA consisting of either S.salar and M.pyrifera, S.salar and M.chilensis, or all three of these species, and combined at ratios required for a bioremediation efficiency of 100 %, 50%, or 20 % of either nitrogen or phosphorous emission from fish, is compared to the monoculture production of S.salar. The comparison is based upon a standardised functional unit, with each species produced through IMTA, being modelled as part of the reference flow required to fulfil the functional unit. Monoculture is compared to IMTA upon the basis of nutritional function, by using a functional unit of mass-adjusted protein content, and mass-adjusted economic value. The use of economic value is based upon the ‘best-case’ assumption, that it serves as a proxy for the total nutritional function that each product offers to human society. The LCAs presented in this study have produced a number of results. Salmon ingredients derived from agricultural crops and animals account for the majority (between 71 % to 98 %) of contributions towards the impacts of compound salmon feed. In general, agricultural crops ingredients contribute more to these impacts than do agricultural animal ingredients, and account for between 31 % and 87 % of the contributions from all ingredients and inputs. In contrast, the combined supply of fish meal and fish oil from capture fisheries is responsible for between 0.13 % and 11 % of all impacts. Vegetable oil accounts for the vast majority of contributions from ingredients derived from agricultural crops. Vegetable oil is modelled as a 50 : 50 blend of sunflower oil and rapeseed, oil, but sunflower oil accounts not only for most of the contributions from vegetable oil, it is responsible for over 50 % of the contributions that all agricultural crop based ingredients contributes towards some impact categories. Replacing sunflower oil with rapeseed oil reduces the contributions of salmon feed by between 6 % and 24 % across 10 out of the 11 impact categories. When compared upon the basis of equal weight, the contributions of fish oil are between 18 % and 99 % lower than those from rapeseed oil. The production of feed is responsible for the majority of contributions (between 32 % and 86 % ) to all impacts of salmon grow-out production. The production of salmon-smolts accounts for between 3 % and 18 %. The majority (64 %) of contributions towards the eutrophication potential of salmon production are from nutrient emissions, which are the result of fish metabolism, whilst nutrients released through the production of feed, the majority of these being from the agricultural production of crop and animals, account for 32 %. Feed production is also a major contributor to the impacts of land-based smolt production, but these contributions (between 12 % and 37 % across all impact categories) are of a lower magnitude than those from the supply of feed to the grow-out phase. Inputs of salt, and inputs of both electricity produced in a diesel power generator and obtained from the national electricity network, are also notable contributors (between 5 % and 67 %, 4 % and 29 %, and 2 % 47 %, respectively) towards the impacts of smolt-production. The main contributors towards the potential impacts of kelp grow-out production (excluding eutrophication potential) are the supply of infrastructure (between 14 % and 89 %), operation of a diesel-powered motorboat for maintenance purposes (between 1 % and 89 %), and the supply ‘of seeded cartridges’ (between 9 and 49 %). The major contributors from the production of ‘seeded cartriges’ in a land-based facility are the supply of electricity from the national electricity network, the supply of fresh water, and the treatment of waste water. The impact potentials of producing seed in this facility might be reduced if the scale of operation is increased. Removal of nitrogen and phosphorous upon the harvesting of kelp is calculated based upon kelp tissue contents of these nutrients. The harvesting of 200 tonnes ha / yr-1, results in a eutrophic potential with a negative value (-376.51 kg of phosphate equivalents). The removal of such a quantity of nutrients might be beneficial if the local marine environment is at risk of hypernutrification, but when no such problem is present, the potential for undesirable consequences of nutrient sequestration should be considered. The major contributor towards the impacts of mussels is the provision of infrastructure (between 25 % and 99.5 %, excluding eutrophication potential). Infrastructure is also responsible for the majority of contributions from mussel seed production. The provision of cotton mesh bags, which are used to aid attatchment of seed to drop-ropes in the grow-out phase, account for between 37% and 99 % of the contributions from the infrastructure from the grow-out phase. This result suggest that either the impacts of mussel production can be reduced by using an alternative material with lower environmental impact potentials, or the inventory data describing the producing of cottonmesh bags requires some improvement. The outcomes of the LCAs of the different IMTA scenarios, are interesting. The results show that choice of species, and the ratios of their combination as required for the different efficiencies of bioremediation, can have a significant effect upon the comparison between IMTA and monoculture. / The study demonstrates a potential for environmental problem shifting as being a consequence of IMTA, especially when the functional unit is mass-adjusted economic value. As bioremediation efficiency increases, contributions towards eutrophication decrease. However, this reduction is achieved at the cost of increasing the contributions of IMTA towards those impact categories, such as ‘ozone layer depletion,’ for which it has a greater contribution than does monoculture. In general, it cannot be concluded from these results that open-water IMTA represents a more sustainable alternative to the monoculture production of Atlantic salmon. The sustainability of IMTA is shown to be dependent upon a variety of trade-offs, between individual environmental impacts, and between these impacts and the nutritional function that the system is capable of providing.

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